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BIOL1040 > Nervous Systems (2) > Flashcards

Nervous Systems (2) Flashcards

1
Q

Information processing of nervous systems

A
  1. Sensory input
  2. Integration
  3. Motor output
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2
Q

Components of a neuron

A 
Nucleus
Cell body
Axon hillock 
Dendrites
Axon
Synaptic terminals
Synapse (junction between synaptic terminals and cell body)
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3
Q

Structural diversity of vertebrate neurons

A

Sensory neuron
Interneuron
Motor neuron

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4
Q

A nerve

A

Consists of many neurons

  • axons
  • connective tissue
  • blood vessels
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5
Q

Glia

A

Supporting cells vital for structural integrity and normal function.
10-50 times more glia than neurons in the mammalian brain.

  • Astrocytes
  • Oligodendrocytes & Schwann cells
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6
Q

Astrocytes

A
  • CNS
  • Structural support
  • Regulate extracellular concentration of ions and neurotransmitters
  • Formation of the blood-brain barrier
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7
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A
  • CNS
  • Form myelin sheaths around axons
  • Lipid membranes: insulator
  • Have nodes of Ranvier
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8
Q

Schwann cells

A
  • PNS
  • Form myelin sheaths around axons
  • Lipid membranes: insulator
  • Have nodes of Ranvier
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9
Q

Gradients of ions across the membrane

A

The resting membrane potential is negative
- The inside membrane is negative relative to the outside (120mM Cl- ECF but 100mM A- anions cytosol)

Na+/K+-ATPase

  • Pumps 3 x Na+ out of the cell
  • Pumps 2 x K+ into the cell

(More Na+ in the extracellular fluid than in the cytosol, more K+ in the cytosol than in the extracellular fluid)

The membrane at rest has many open K+ channels but few open Na+ or Cl- channels.

Build up of -ve charge in neuron: limited by electrical gradient vs. chemical gradient of K+.

Eq’m potential in neuron: approx. -70mV

Process not dependent on voltage-gated ion channels- which are required for action potentials.

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10
Q

Excitable cells

A

All cells have a membrane potential.

Rapid changes in membrane potential occur in these cells:
Neurons
Myocytes
Pancreatic beta cells

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11
Q

Membrane potential

A

Voltage of inside of membrane relative to outside - equilibrium

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12
Q

Hyperpolarisation

A

Inside of membrane becomes more negative

  • Opening of voltage-gated K+ channels
  • K+ out
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13
Q

Depolarisation

A

Inside of membrane becomes more positive

  • opening of voltage-gated Na+ ion channels
  • Na+ in
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14
Q

Resting potential

A

-70mV

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15
Q

Threshold

A

-55mV

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16
Q

Action potentials

A

General info:
Magnitude is independent of the strength of the original stimulus - all or nothing response depending on if threshold is reached.

Steps:
1. Resting state:
Voltage-gated ion channels are closed

  1. A stimulus:
    Causes a few Na+ channels to open, Na+ rushes in
  2. Depolarisation:
    If threshold is reached:
    Lots of Na+ channels open
    Lots of Na+ rushes in
  3. Repolarisation
    K+ channels open
    K+ rushes out
    Na+ channels INACTIVATED and then start to close
  4. Undershoot
    Small hyperpolarisation
    Also need Na+/K+-ATPase to restore Na+ and K+ concentrations

Usually start at the axon hillock
Travels long distances by regenerating itself along the axon

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17
Q

Voltage-gated Na+ channels

A

Three states: Fast

Closed —> Depolarisation
Open
Inactivated

General anaesthetics prevent VG Na+ channel transition from inactivated to closed state

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18
Q

Voltage-gated K+ channels

A

Two states: Slower

Closed —> Depolarisation
Open

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19
Q

Absolute refractory period

A

From start of depolarisation at threshold to start of undershoot.

No action potential can be generated

  • Na+ channels open for first half
  • Na+ channels inactivated for the second half
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20
Q

Relative refractory period

A

From start of undershoot to the end.

AP only occur if a large enough stimulus is applied
-Because some Na+ channels are in the closed state again

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21
Q

Refractory periods

A

Limit firing frequency

The action potential can only travel in one direction

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22
Q

Factors affecting action potential conduction speed

A

Axon diameter
-Larger diameter, less resistance
Temperature
-Chemical reactions occur faster at warmer temperatures
Degree of myelination
-Insulates the axon membrane in vertebrates to enable faster conduction speed

Conduction speed is affected more by myelination than by axon diameter

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23
Q

Saltatory conduction and smooth conduction

A

Nodes of ranvier restrict sites where Na+ and K+ channels can open and close (120 m/sec) - salutatory conduction

Unmyelinated nerve fiber - smooth conduction

24
Q

Presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons

A

Presynaptic neuron —> Postsynaptic neuron

Presynaptic neuron —> effector cell (muscle)

25
Q

Electrical synapses

A
  • at gap junctions
  • direct electrical current between cells
  • few synapses of this type
26
Q

Chemical synapses

A
  • release of a neurotransmitter

- neurotransmitter released by presynaptic neuron

27
Q

Neurotransmitter release at chemical synapse

A

Action potential propagated down the axon to the presynaptic membrane which opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. Ca2+ bind to synaptic vessels containing neurotransmitter and release the neurotransmitter into the synapse through exocytosis of the vesicles to the presynaptic membrane.

The neurotransmitter binds to ligand-gated ion channels on the postsynaptic neuron.
These open to let in some Na+. Leads to a postsynaptic potential - graded

28
Q

Excitatory postsynaptic potential

A

EPSP. If depolarisation at postsynaptic membrane

29
Q

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

A

IPSP. If hyperpolarisation at postsynaptic membrane

30
Q

Temporal summation

A

Most postsynaptic potentials decline before they reach axon hillock (threshold).

Several EPSPs come from the same synapse just after each other.

Can reach threshold at axon hillock - action potential!

31
Q

Spatial summation

A

Two or more EPSPs from different synapses

32
Q

Postsynaptic potentials vs. Action potentials

A

PSP

  • EPSP or IPSP
  • Graded
  • Local
  • At the cell body or dendrites

Action Potential

  • depolarisation
  • ‘all or nothing’
  • EPSPs can add up and cause an action potential
  • Generated at the axon hillock
  • Travels along the axon
33
Q

Direct synaptic transmission

A
  • Neurotransmitter opens ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane
  • action via ligand-gated ion channels
  • Ion channel linked receptors
34
Q

Indirect synaptic transmission

A
  • Neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on the post synaptic membrane
  • Activates a signal transduction pathway
  • Involves a second messenger
  • Can result in EPSPs or IPSPs depending on the neurotransmitter and the receptor type
  • GPCRs
35
Q

Examples of amino acid neurotransmitters

A

GABA
Glycine
Glutamate
Aspartate

36
Q

Amine neurotransmitters

A

Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Norepinephrine
Serotonin

37
Q

Removal of neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft

A
  • Recycled by selective uptake by transporters
  • Taken up by astrocytes
  • Broken down by enzymes e.g. acetylcholinesterase
  • Diffusion
38
Q

Primitive nervous systems

A

All animals except sponges have nervous systems

Hydra, Sea star, flatworm

39
Q

Nervous system of more complex vertebrates

A

Segmentally arranged clusters of neurons = ganglia

Ganglia = PNS

Connected to CNS

Leeches, insects

40
Q

Peripheral Nervous system

A

Cranial nerves (12 pairs in mammals

Spinal nerves (31 pairs in mammals)

Most spinal and cranial nerves contain sensory neurons and motor neurons

Skin –> Sensory neuron (Dorsal root ganglion –> Dorsal root) –> Interneuron –> Motor neuron (Ventral root) –> muscle

41
Q

The reflex arc

A

Hit on knee, cell body of sensory neuron in dorsal root ganglion, SN passes through gray matter of spinal chord, transmitted directly to mortor neuron of quadricep, and also to interneuron then motor neuron of hamstring

42
Q

Voluntary and Involuntary motor neurons

A

Voluntary - Somatic nervous system

Mostly involuntary - Autonomic nervous system:
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division
Enteric division (don’t really have to worry about)

43
Q

Sympathetic nervous system

A 
Fight or flight
Bronchi dilate
Heart beats faster 
Glycogen to glucose
Adrenaline secretion
Digestion is inhibited
Inhibits salivary gland secretion
44
Q

Parasympathetic nervous system

A 
Rest and digest
Calming
Constricts bronchi in lungs
Slows heart
Stimulates digestion
Stimulates salivary gland secretion
45
Q

Central Nervous system

A

Brain + Spinal chord

46
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A

Protects the CNS

  • Clear fluid
  • 4 ventricles and central canal
  • Supply of nutrients and hormones, remove waste
47
Q

Gray and white matter

A

Gray - dendrites, unmyelinated axons, cell bodies

White - myelinated axons in trancts

48
Q

Brain regions

A

Developed from the embryonic:

  • Forebrain (cerebrum and diencephalon)
  • midbrain (part of brainstem)
  • hindbrain (part of brainstem, cerebellum)
49
Q

The brainstem

A

Basic functions
Homeostasis, movement
Transfer of info to the rest of the brain
Reticular formation -selectivity

50
Q

Cerebellum

A
  • Coordination
  • Motor function
  • Cognitive and perceptual functions
51
Q

The Diencephalon

A

Epithalamus

  • Connects limbic system (emotional center) to the rest of the brain
  • Pineal gland: melatonin (sleep)

Thalamus

  • Input from sensory neurons
  • Output via motor neurons

Hypothalamus

  • Homeostatic regulation - hormones (via posterior and anterior pituitary glands)
  • Biological clock
  • Temperature regulation
  • Survival - hunger, thirst…
52
Q

Four lobes of the cerebral cortex

A

Frontal lobe
-Skeletal muscle control, decision making, planning, Broca’s area

Temporal lobe
-hearing (auditory cortex), Wernicke’s area

Parietal lobe
-Touch (somatosensory cortex), sensory association cortex

Occipital lobe
-Visual association cortex

53
Q

Broca and Wernicke’s areas

A

Broca - speech generation

Wernicke - speech hearing

54
Q

Emotions - the limbic system

A 
Olfactory bulb
Hypothalamus 
Thalamus
Amygdala
Hippocampus: mem
55
Q

Memory

A

Short term: Hippocampus
Long term: Cerebral cortex

Remembering: communication between the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus

56
Q

Long-term potentiation in vertebrates (interesting)

A

High frequency transmission of glutamate. Results in increase in size of postsynaptic potentials at synapse. Last for days or weeks. A fundamental process for storing memories and hence for learning.

BIOL1040 (7 decks)

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