Nervous Coordination Flashcards
Describe the general structure of a motor neuron?
Cell body: contains organelles & high proportion of RER
Dendrons: branch into dendrites which carry impulses towards cell body
Axon: long, unbranched fibre carries nerve impulses away from cell body
Describe the additional features of a myelinated motor neuron.
- schwann cells: wrap around axon many times
- myelin sheath: made from myelin-rich membranes of schwann cells
- nodes of ranvier: very short gaps between neighbouring schwann cells where there is no myelin sheath
Name 3 processes Schwann cells are involved in.
- electrical insulation
- phagocytosis
- nerve regeneration
How does an action potential pass along an unmyelinated neuron?
- stimulus leads to influx of Na+ ions. First section of membrane depolarisation.
- local electrical currents cause sodium voltage-gated channels further along membrane to open. Meanwhile, the section behind begins to repolarise.
- Sequential wave of depolarisation
Explain why myelinated axons conduct impulses faster than unmyelinated axons.
Saltatory conduction: impulse ‘jumps’ from one node of ranvier to another. Depolarisation cannot occur where myelin sheath acts as electrical insulator. So impulse does not travel along whole axon length
What is resting potential?
Potential difference (voltage) across neuron membrane when not stimulated (-50 to -90 mV, usually about -70mV in humans)
How is resting potential established?
- membrane potential is more permeable to K+ than Na+
- sodium-potassium pump actively transports 3Na+ out of cell & 2K+ into cell
Establishes electrochemical gradient: cell contents more negative than extracellular environment
Name the stages in generating an action potential.
- depolarisation
- repolarisation
- hyperpolarisation
- return to resting potential
What happens during depolarisation?
- stimulus —> facilitated diffusion of Na+ ions into cell down electrochemical gradient
- p.d. across membrane becomes more positive
- if membrane reaches threshold potential (-50mV), voltage-gated Na+ channels open
- significant influx of Na+ ions reverses p.d. to +40mV
What happens during repolarisation?
- voltage-gated Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open
- facilitated diffusion of K+ ions out of cell down their electrochemical gradient
- p.d. across membrane becomes more negative
What happens during hyperpolarisation?
- overshoot when K+ ions diffuse out = p.d. becomes more negative than resting potential
- refractory period: no stimulus is large enough to raise membrane potential to threshold
- voltage-gated K+ channels close & sodium-potassium pump re-establishes resting potential
Explain the importance of the refractory period.
No action potential can be generated in hyperpolarised sections of membrane:
- ensures unidirectional impulse
- ensures discrete impulses
- limits frequency of impulse transmission
What is ‘all or nothing’ principle?
Any stimulus that causes the membrane to reach threshold potential will generate an action potential.
All action potentials have the same magnitude.
Name the factors that affect the speed of conductance.
- myelin sheath
- axon diameter
- temperature
How does axon diameter affect the speed of conductance?
greater diameter = faster
- less resistance to flow of ion
- less ‘leakage’ of ions
How does temperature affect speed of conductance?
higher temp = faster
- faster rate of diffusion
- faster rate of respiration = more respiration for active transport to re-establish resting potential
temp too high = membrane proteins denature
Suggest appropriate statistical test to determine whether a factor has a significant effect on the speed of conductance.
T-test
Suggest appropriate units for the maximum frequency of impulse conduction.
Hz
How can an organism detect the strength of a stimulus?
Larger stimulus raises membrane to threshold potential more quickly after hyperpolarisation = greater frequency of impulses
What is the function of synapses?
- electrical impulse cannot travel over junction between neurons
- neurotransmitters send impulses between neurons/ from neurons to effectors
- new impulses can be initiated in several different neurons for multiple simultaneous responses
Describe the structure of a synapse.
Presynaptic neuron ends in synaptic knob: contains lots of mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum & vesicles of neurotransmitter
Synaptic cleft: 20-30nm gap between neurons.
Postsynaptic neuron: has complementary receptors to neurotransmitter
Outline what happens in the presynaptic neuron when an action potential is transmitted from one neuron to another.
- wave of depolarisation travels down presynaptic neuron, causing voltage-gated Ca2+ channels to open
- vesicles move towards & fuse with presynaptic membrane
- exocytosis of neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft
How do neurotransmitters cross the synaptic cleft?
via simple diffusion
Outline what happens in the postsynaptic neuron when an action potential is transmitted from one neuron to another.
- neurotransmitter binds to specific receptor on postsynaptic menbrane
- ligand-gated Na+ channels open
- In influx of Na+ ions raises membrane to threshold potential, action potential is generated
Explain why synaptic transmission is unidirectional.
Only presynaptic neuron contains vesicles of neurotransmitter & only postsynaptic membrane has complementary receptors.
So impulse always travels presynaptic —> postsynaptic
Define summation and name the 2 types.
Neurotransmitter from several sub-threshold impulses accumulates to generate action potential:
- temporal summation
- spatial summation
(no summation of neuromuscular junctions)
What is the difference between temporal and spatial summation?
Temporal: one presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitter several times in quick succession.
Spatial: multiple presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitter.
What are cholinergic synapses?
Use acetylcholine as primary neurotransmitter. Excitatory or inhibitory. Located at:
- motor end plate (muscle contraction)
- preganglionic neurons (excitation)
- parasympathetic postganglionic neurons (inhibition)
What happens to acetylcholine from the synaptic cleft?
- hydrolysis into acetyl and choline by acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
- acetyl & choline diffuses back into presynaptic membrane
- ATP is used to reform acetylcholine for storage in vesicles
Explain the importance of AChE.
- prevents overstimulation of skeletal muscle cells
- enables acetyl and choline to be recycled
What happens in an inhibitory synapse?
- neurotransmitter binds to and opens Cl- channels on postsynaptic membrane & triggers K+ channels to open
- Cl- moves in & K+ moves out via facilitated diffusion
- p.d. becomes more negative: hyperpolarisation
Describe the structure of a neuromuscular junction.
Synaptic cleft between a presynaptic neuron and a skeletal muscle cell.
How might drugs increase synaptic transmission?
- inhibit AChE
- mimic shape of neurotransmitter
How might drugs decrease synapse transmission?
- inhibit release of neurotransmitter
- decrease permeability of postsynaptic membrane to ions
- hyperpolarise postsynaptic membrane
