Native Americans Flashcards
How diverse was Native American Society in the early 19th century?
In 1803 most of modern-day America was inhabited by NA. There were over 80 different tribes and nations, and each had different histories and traditions and were independent of one another, this often brought them into conflict although some tribes were organised into confederacies. There were periods when some tribes cooperated with the US gov and there were also occasions when some aided the gov against other tribes.
Who were the different groups?
The largest proportion of NA lived on the great plains and lived nomadic lifestyles, roaming the plains and following the buffalo hers. The buffalo determined their lifestyle, yet this was completely alien to white settlers. In the first part of the period these NA were largely left alone but as white explorers who crossed the Appalachian Mountains believed the plains could not sustain civilised life.
However, in the south west, in contrast to some NA nomadic lifestyles, some NA lives as peaceful farmers. The Mandan’s lives of the edge of the Great Plains and occupied two great walled towns and in 1804 their community was the largest west of the Mississippi river. The Missouri river provided them with fertile land and after the invention of steamboats they used the Mississippi river to trade their surpluses with settlers.
There were also some tribes in the West who were fishermen, similarly in Florida.
Examples of “farmer” NA:
Sioux
Cheyenne
Lakota
Examples of Plains nomadic NA:
Navaho
Pawnee
Hidatsa
Mandan’s
Examples of “fishermen” NA:
Yakama nation
The 5 civilised tribes:
Why were they known as the civilised tribes?
Ultimately why were they unable to resist government action?
There were also some tribes who were more open to cultural assimilation, these tribes became known as the 5 civilised tribes:
Cherokees Chickasaws Choctaws Creeks Seminoles
At the start of the period they had some success in in negotiating and retaining much of their land but as the period progressed treaties began to be ignored and they were forced onto Indian territory (Oklahoma).
–> Overall the different lifestyles and beliefs weakened NA ability to resist the federal government’s actions. NA were too divided to resist.
Why, and with what consequence was there conflict between NA and whites during westward expansion?
Apart from the 5 civilised tribes, most NA did not want to adopt settlers’ beliefs and lifestyles and the aims of the US gov to assimilate NA brought them into conflict.
Most tribes simply wanted to live according to their own tribal customs and wanted the right of self-determination, however, the American government did not accept this.
Westward expansion had an enormous impact, many NA realised they had little choice but to surrender their ancestral lands, however, a significant number did choose to resist the advance.
WA saw NA as nothing more than savages and were willing to call of the FG to drive them out. However, the advance of white settlers saw in a lot of instances little resistance as NA were too divided and unable to co-ordinate attempts at resistance.
Resistance from NA
Resistance to white settlers from NA was limited as whites had superior weapons but also because NA had sparse settlements and were divided amongst themselves and were no able to unite against a common enemy.
Tecumseh’s Confederacy 1805- 1813
Tecumseh was a Shawnee leader and brother of the Prophet who preached rejection of white customs and goods.
In 1811 he tried to organise a confederation of tribes to resist white advances and defend ancestral lands.
He had some success in bringing together the tribes of the North West, however, when trying to bring in the 5 civilised tribes in 1811 the governor of Indian Territory, William Henry Harrison launched an attack on the Shawnees main settlement at Prophetstown.
This led to the Prophet launching an attack on Harrisons camp, yet he was defeated.
In an act of revenge Harrison destroyed the Shawnees main town, burning it down and destroying the food they would need for winter.
Tecumseh fled to Canada where he joined the British and Canadian forces fighting against Americans in the war of 1812.
However, at the battle of the Thames in 1813 Tecumseh was killed.
==> Some see this as an end to the attempts at uniting NA to resist the advancement of white settles.
War of 1812
In 1812 US forces (led by Andrew Jackson) successfully defeated the Creek tribe at Horseshow bend.
As a result, the Creeks were forced to cede 2/3 of their land which consisted much of modern-day Alabama at the Treaty of Fort Jackson.
The war of 1812 played a pivotal role in weakening resistance to the FG as after the war the NA lost the support of Britain and the British vacated many forts around the Great Lakes, so NA lost access to their former ally.
In the period following 1812 many tribes conceded land as a result many tribes in the mid-west found their land greatly reduced.
Seminole Wars 1816-1858
Overview
Who were the Seminole?
The Seminole were a tribe which originate from Florida, over time they fought 3 separate wars with the American government in order to resist the loss of land.
Together the 3 wars were the longest and most costly that the American government had to fight against any NA.
Fist Seminole War 1816-1819
American forces under Jackson invaded West Florida and Spanish Florida despite protests from both Britain and Spain.
Spain ceded Florida to the USA as it was unable to properly defend it and in 1823 the Seminole were required to leave northern Florida for a reservation in central Florida.
Second Seminole War 1835-42
The second war was a result of American orders for the Seminole to leave Florida entirely under the Treaty of Payne’s Landing.
The Seminole waged a guerrilla war led by their chief Osceola.
This led to a change in tactics by American forces who destroyed farms and villages. The Seminole who survived (roughly 3000) were moved to lands which later became the state of Oklahoma.
The war had cost the US government roughly 1500 men and $50 million.
The Third Seminole War 1855-1858
cause
events
The third war was a result of the government trying to remove the last few Seminole from Florida.
The gov provoked conflict by sending scouting parties to trespass on Seminole lands.
The gov was able to force most out by cutting food supplies leaving the majority of the remaining Seminole to leave for Oklahoma with just a few staying in the everglades.
The American Civil War and impact on NA
Treaties + Food supply
The civil war had a profound effect on NA.
Before the war began several tribes had signed treaties giving up their land to the American government (e.g. the Sioux).
This resulted in NA having reduced hunting lands and less access to the Buffalo, which they depended on.
As a result, NA became increasingly reliant on the American government for aid.
However, during the civil war the American government’s attention became less focused on NA and as a result aid did not always reach NA.
The lack of food led to unrest which culminated in the Plains wars.
The American Civil War and impact on NA
Replacement of soldiers
impact + example
Furthermore, regular government troop that had been placed to protect NA were withdrawn to be used as soldiers in the civil war and they were replaced by untrained volunteers whose lack of discipline resulted in violence between the 2 groups.
The most serious example of this is in 1862 in Minnesota when the Dakota Sioux were not given their supplies they killed 800 white Americans.
This ultimately led to them losing their land in Minnesota and being moved to worst land further west. (Little Crows)
This was followed by the Sank Creek Massacre in 1864 where the Cheyenne were promised protection however, despite this US cavalry launched an attack on an undefended Cheyenne camp which killed some 450 NA including many women and children.
Most tellingly, the men responsible for this attack (Colonel John Chivington) were praised as heroes by many westerners.
The American Civil War and impact on NA
expansion of land
Most importantly, the civil war led to the gov becoming determined to secure the lands west of the Mississippi.
For example, the Homestead Act 1862 was created so that by 1865 some 20,000 had settles on the Plains.
However, these settlements were at a cost to NA and in 1864 the Navajo and the Apache had been moved onto reservations, with the associated destruction of their culture.
The Indian Wars of 1860s and 70s
Names and dates
1862 Little Crows 1863-64 Cheyenne Uprising 1866-68 Red Clouds War 1868 Winter Campaign 1876-77 The Great Sioux War
Little Crows 1862
cause
events
outcome
The outbreak of Little Crow’s war happened after the passing of the Indian Appropriation Act of 1861 which authorised the creation of reservations in Oklahoma and also after the failure of the US gov to provide the Sioux with sufficient food in 1861.
The led to violence and the killing of roughly 700 settlers. Many of the Sioux were captured and sentenced to death but Lincoln commuted the sentences for most.
The remaining Sioux were moved to a reservation at Crow Creek on the Missouri river but the conditions there were so harsh that 400 died in the first winter.
Cheyenne Uprising 1863-64 and the Winter War
cause
events
outcome
- Cause of the Sand Creek Massacre
The Cheyenne’s had agreed to move onto Sand Creek Reservations but the land there was too poor for them to survive.
This led to them attacking wagons to obtain food so that they didn’t starve.
This led to an attack by troops in retaliation (sand creek massacre)
Red Cloud’s War
cause
events
outcome
This was caused by the discovery of gold in the mountains of Montana which led to the creation of new towns and the opening of new trails which crossed Sioux land and encroached on their hunting lands.
This broke an existing peace treaty and so the Sioux attacked settlers.
Whilst the government was having peace talks it also began to build a series of forts along the trail, this led to Red Cloud (chief of the Lakota Sioux) breaking off the talks.
Red Cloud was responsible for leading the resistance to the government attempts to build the Powder River road which would cut across the Lakota’s buffalo grounds.
Red Cloud besieged Fort Kearney and prevented the trail from being used whilst also succeeding in waging the campaign through winter.
The government was finally forced to admit defeat in 1868 and alternative routes to mining areas were opened, troops were withdrawn from the forts and the Great Sioux Reservation was created under the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868 which forbade non-NA settlers to enter the area.
The Great Sioux War
cause
events
outcome
–> Resulted due to the gov breaking the Treaty of Fort Laramie.
The Sioux believed that they were not receiving the supplies they had been promised and they were also angry that their hunting grounds were under threat from the construction of the North Pacific Railway and this was worsened by the arrival of miners after the discovery of gold in the black hills.
The Great Sioux War is a series of battles fought as a result, these battles include the Battle of Little Bighorn.
The discovery of gold in the black hills of Dakota 1874:
events
outcome
In 1874 General Custer led the Seventh Cavalry into the Black hills of Dakota in search of gold which broke the treaty of Fort Laramie.
The discovery of gold in 1874 was the catalyst for unrest as it led to a massive influx of miners and settlers.
Subsequently the gov offered to buy the black hills but the Sioux refused as they were considered sacred territory as it is where their nation began.
The gov ordered the Sioux to return to their reservation by Jan 1st, 1876 but this was impossible due to the harsh conditions of winter.
Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse (both members of the Sioux) raised a force of 7000 men showing the scale of discontent among the tribes over the breach of the treaty.
On Jan 1st the gov ordered the military to treat all those not on the reservation as hostile.
This led to General Sheridan launching a campaign against them which culminated in the humiliating defeat of General Custer at the Battle of Little Bighorn.
Battle of Little Bighorn 1876
events
outcome
impact on NA
The Sioux and Cheyenne refused to return to their reservation.
Custer was sent to round them up but did not wait for all of his forces to arrive.
He divided the forces he had into 3 and attempted to surround the NA camp but his 700 men were attacked and 270 were killed.
This had a profound impact on relations between the gov and NA, President Grant and his generals were determined to avenge Custer’s death and so the size of reservation lands was greatly cut back and the Lakota Sioux were reduced to starvation.
This forced most to surrender and return to reservations.
