Native Americans

Question 1

Outline the Assimilation/Americanisation policy that existed from 1790 onwards.

Answer 1

It attempted to eradicate Native American culture so that European-American values could prevail, inspired by Manifest Destiny. Aggressive until John Collier (Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1933 - 1945) opposed assimilation attempts but is implicit throughout the whole period

Question 2

What was the overarching government policy on Native Americans from the 1850s until 1887?

Answer 2

The reservation policy. Confined tribes to reservation areas and gave the government power to ban many customs and remove the powers of the traibal chief.

Question 3

What did the Allotment policy (1887 - 1934) do?

Answer 3

It divided reservation lands into allotments/homesteads, given to individual Native American families

Question 4

What did the Termination policy do to Native Americans?

Answer 4

It gave them the same rights as American citizens, tribes were no longer recognised and Native Americans were encouraged to relocate/join the expanding urban workforce.

Question 5

Which act offered 160 Acres of land to any American citizen over the age of 21 and aimed to fulfil Manifest Destiny to civilise the plains?

Answer 5

1862 Homestead Act

Question 6

What did Ulysse Grant’s Peace Policy 0f 1868 do?

Answer 6

Aimed to solve the issue of corruption by putting Indian agency control in the hands of 12 Christian denominations. Grant aimed to promote “humanity and kindness” but actually sanctioned crueler efforts at religious assimilation and also allowed “all needed severity” for those who refused Reservation life.

Question 7

Which act does this describe:

Determined how Native American tribes were organised on the reservations. Ended any treaties between individual tribes and the government, effectively making them wards of the state and retracting legal recognition of independent Indian nations.

Answer 7

1871 Indian Appropriation Act

Question 8

Which Act ended the reservation policy and started the allotment policy in 1887?

Answer 8

Dawes Severalty Act: Led to the allocation of allotments to Native Americans for agricultural use. Land-owning Native Americans were granted citizenship rights. Ended the nearly 100-year-old practice of treaty-making between the Federal Government and Native American tribes.

Question 9

Which two Supreme Court judgements in 1902 and 1903 failed to advance Native American rights?

Answer 9

• 1902 Cherokee Nation v. Hitchcock: Cherokee tribe challenged Congress for the denial of their right to live according to their own laws and traditions but were defeated in court.
• 1903 Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock: Supreme Court supported the power of the U.S. government to revoke all treaties made with Native Americans, leading to a loss of 90% of NA land & made Congress responsible for their welfare as ‘wards of state’. It supported the assimilation/allotment policy.

Question 10

In which year was it ruled that the Pueblo Indians were incapable of managing their own land, meaning they were removed in 1921? What organisation did this lead to the formation of

Answer 10

1913

American Indian Defence Association (AIDA)

Question 11

What did the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 do?

Answer 11

Granted citizenship but was intended to promote assimilation and did not guarantee state voting rights.

Question 12

Which organisation managed to block both the Bursum Bill of 1922 and the Leavitt Bill of 1928? What were they intended to do?

Answer 12

• The Bursum Bill posed a threat as it would authorize the acquisition of Pueblo lands.
• The Leavitt Bill threatened to remove the right of Pueblo Indians to perform traditional dances in New Mexico.

Question 13

What did the Meriam Report (1928) detail and what was the impact?

Answer 13

It condemned the allotment policy and exposed the poverty, poor education/healthcare and corruption of officials who diverted govt. funding. As a result, President Hoover appointed Charles Rhoads as Indian commissioner and pledged greater funding to improve education/healthcare.

Question 14

Who was responsible for the 1934 Indian Reorganisation/Wheeler-Howard Act and what did it do?

Answer 14

Considered part of the ‘Indian New Deal’ and brought in largely due to John Collier’s appointment as Commissioner for Indian Affairs. Cemented NA rights to practice their own religion, assert cultural heritage and overturned a ban on ceremonial dances. It also curtailed the sale of unallocated land.

Question 15

What was the Indian Claims Commission (1946 - 1978)?

Answer 15

Established by Congress to recognise the achievements of NA war veterans. Appeared to provide an opportunity to claim back land that had been lost in treaties of the 19th century. 370 petitions were filed but most received financial compensation rather than land. Aided the assimilation process by removing government responsibility for Native Americans living on reservations.

Question 16

What was the 1958 Harrison v. Laveen (Arizona) judgement?

Answer 16

Two Native Americans challenged the denial of their right to register to vote and were successful. This set a precedent but other states continued to restrict voting.

Question 17

The 1956 Indian Relocation Act was established alongside the policy of termination. What did it do?

Answer 17

It encouraged Native Americans to leave reservations, acquire vocational skills, and assimilate into the general population. It terminated the tribal status of a number of groups and offered to pay moving expenses/provide some vocational training for those who were willing to move from the reservations to certain government-designated cities

Question 18

What policy, implemented by President Kennedy required government employers to “not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin”? Who was it extended under?

Answer 18

Affirmative Action

Johnson and Nixon

Question 19

Which 1972 act involved a substantial increase in federal funding for Indian schools, including programmes to build reservation schools?

Answer 19

1972 Indian Education Act

The closure of highly controversial boarding schools was part of the reform continued post-Nixon by Ford and Carter.

Question 20

What was the Oneida v. Oneida and Madison Counties (NY) judgement?

Answer 20

Oneida tribe sued for the return of their lands and were successful, leading to more tribes seeking to regain land.

Question 21

What was the American Indian Policy Review Commission set up for?

Answer 21

To review the historical and legal relationship between the federal government and Native Americans, with a view to advising on future government policy. Of the eleven commissioners, five were of Indian heritage.

Question 22

Which two acts, important to Native American civil rights were passed in 1975?

Answer 22

• 1975 Indian Self-Determination Act: Established the processes whereby the tribes could negotiate contracts with the Bureau of Indian Affairs to take responsibility for their own education, health and social service provision. It also authorised the allocation of federal funding for these programmes which moved the tribes nearer to self-sufficiency.
• 1975 Education Assistance Act: Gave American-Indian parents greater involvement in their children’s education through membership of their school boards.

Question 23

Which Supreme Court judgement ruled that tribal courts had to decide on adoption and Native American children could not be forcibly removed from their families?

Answer 23

1976 Fisher v. Montana

Question 24

Which two acts crucial for Native American rights were passed in 1978?

Answer 24

• American Indian Religious Freedoms Act: Gave Native Americans the right ‘to believe, express and exercise traditional religions including access to sites, use and possession of sacred objects and freedom to worship through ceremonial and traditional rights’. This encouraged action to recover sacred objects and remains.
• Indian Child Welfare Act: seeks to keep Native American children with their families, gives tribal government’s jurisdiction over foster care placement proceedings.

Question 25

Which 3 Supreme Court judgements, largely positive to Native American civil rights, were passed in the 80s?

Answer 25

• 1980 United States v. Sioux Nation: Ruled that the Sioux tribe were entitled to compensation for the loss of their land. They were awarded $27.5 million and 5% interest per year since 1877. Refused financial compensation, preferring return of their land but this encouraged other tribes to seek compensation.
• 1982 Seminole Tribe v. Butterworth: Granted the right to establish gambling businesses on their land, overriding state law.
• 1986 Charrier v. Bell: Ruled that remains from burial grounds in Louisiana belonged to Native Americans, encouraging states to pass laws to protect Native American burial lands.

Question 26

What was the 1990 Native American Graves Protection Act?

Answer 26

Reinforced Native American Rights Fund and required federally-funded institutions to repatriate American Indian remains, grave goods and sacred objects.