Native American Revision Flashcards
How many native Americans were moved due to the Indian removal act 1830?
70,000: relocated to Oklahoma
How many tribes were there in the 1800s?
86 independent tribes
What year did hostilities emerge from the Sioux and the Cheyenne towards white settlers?
1865
Name four of the treaties in 1851 which contributed to the loss of NA land?
Fort Laramie Treaty (Sioux, Arapaho, Cheyenne)
Fort Wise Treaty (Cheyenne and Arapaho)
Medicine Lodge Treaty (Kiowa, Comanche, Plains Apache)
Fort Laramie Treaty (Lakota, Sioux, Arapaho)
What massacre occurred in 1864?
Sand Creek Massacre, cavalry troops massacred Cheyenne women and children
What wars occurred during the period 1862-67?
- little crow’s war, 1862 (Sioux)
- Cheyenne Uprising, 1863
- Red Cloud’s war, 1867 (Sioux)
What did the Homesteads Act 1862 provide?
160 acres of land to farmers , free for 5 years. By 1865, 20,000 homesteaders had settled on the Plains
What was the Trail of Tears?
Forced movement of Native Americans from their homelands to Oklahoma in 1830s
What year were the Navajo and Apache tribes moved to reservations?
- The Navajo people had to walk 300 miles on foot
what was the areal extent of reservations as of 1890?
- 133,417 Native Americans, 20 states, on 78,500,000 acres of land enforced by 70 officers.
How many of the 133,417 Native americans in 1890 were on rations?
34,785
When was the Fort Laramie Treaty broken?
1871, by Congress, who did not consult the tribes
What and when was the Battle for Little Big Horn?
1876 - General Custer attempted to force Sioux and Cheyenne tribesmen back onto the Reservations. All 200 were killed. The punishment involved breaking up the Great Sioux reservation into 6 sections, and letting the Lakota Sioux starve
Why were Native Americans not permitted civil rights?
They were simply wards of the state, and did not pay taxes (therefore could not be considered citizens).
What affected the 1880s?
drought
How many native Americans remained in 1900?
Only 100,000 of the 240,000 Native Americans
What happened in 1890 at South Dakota?
The wounded knee massacre. The Sioux tribesman performed a traditional dance which white settlers thought was the start of an uprising. Sitting Bull was shot, alongside 200 others
In 1868 what did the Navajo tribe quickly adapt to on the 4,000,000 acre reservation?
Farming. The government provided 15,000 sheep, by 1890 the flock grew to 1,700,000. 1930s - the Navajo tribe was given more land so they had 10,500,000 acres. By 1900 the population had increased from 8000 in 1868 to 22,000
How much money did the government spend on education for children aged 5 to 18 in 1877?
$20,000
What organisation was founded in 1882 devoted to assimilating the Native Americans?
The Indian rights Association. The organisation thought that welfare was the only way to improve the lives of Native Americans
What were the off-reservation boarding schools called that were set up in 1870?
The Hampton normal and agricultural Institute of Virginia and Carlisle industrial Indian School, Pennsylvania
What corrupt government institution was opened in 1869 to help the assimilation process of Native Americans?
The board of Commissioners
Under what act were homesteads given to Native American families?
The Dawes Act 1887/ General Allotment Act - gave 160 acres of farmland or 320 acres of grazing land for 25 years in trust, after 25 years they had full ownership. Those partaking in the scheme would be given full citizenship. Unallotted allotted land would be given to white settlers.
How much of the reservation land was lost between the years 1877 – 1900?
Almost half (150mil to 78mil)
What two tribes struggled with the Dawes act, and why?
The Iroquois and Cherokee tribes. This was because they were traditionally matriarchal, but now found that the males were considered heads of the family.
What did the 1898 Curtis act do?
Amended the Dawes act. Applied allotment policy to 5 civilised Tribes. This resulted in the loss to the right to self-government in 1906.
What were the five civilised Tribes involved in the trail of tears 1838?
The Cherokee, the Chickasaw, the Choctaws, the Seminole, and the creeks
What was the Muskogee Convention of 1905?
The leaders of the five civilised Tribes met to try and create their own independent state of the Sequoyah before the government combined Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory into the state of Oklahoma
In what court case did the Cherokee tribe challenge Congress’ right to dictate that Native Americans could not live according to their own laws and traditions?
Nation vs Hitchcock, 1902
What happened to the Muskogee Convention of 1905?
It was rejected by Congress. The two territories were combined in 1907. 1898–1907–100,000 Oklahoma Indians were assigned lands, 2,000,000 acres was given to the white settlers
What formed in 1911?
The society of American Indians, by 50 educated Native American men and women. First attempted inter tribal pressure group.
What case involved lone Wolf suing the government over the break of the Medicine Lodge Treaty?
Lone Wolf vs. Hitchcock, 1903 - fell in favour of Congress
What did the SAI stand for?
Improvement of education and health care.
What happened during the war years?
10,000 Native Americans fought on behalf of the us army, not segregated. Some were moved off of reservations to begin war work, and were influenced by civilising forces (basically they learned English)
Why did the SAI collapse in the 1920s?
Lack of funding
Discrimination by the courts
Lack of Native American support
Internal communication issues
When did the right to vote come?
In 1924 with the Indian citizenship act. Not that amazing - many didn’t want the right to vote, and two thirds of the Native American population could already vote due to the citizenship provided by the dawes act. Supposed to empower the natives in order to speed assimilation. This was contentious however, and many states in the west prevented native Americans from voting anyway
What was the Harrison vs Laveen case, 1948?
Basically Mohawk-Apache tribe members took Laveen to court, as Laveen refused to let them register to vote. The court fell in favour of the Native Americans, but this did not set a legal precedent.
What happened to tribes in Wisconsin and Minnesota during the 1920s? What was the effect?
Lost 80% of land - attitudes towards the NA began to change
What did the Supreme Court declare in 1913 in relation to the Peublo Indians?
Declared Pueblos incapable of looking after their own land. Resultantly, lost most of their land in 1821
What were the 1921-23 Leavitt Bills?
Actions taken by the Feds to prevent pueblos performing their traditional dances. Reaction - creation of AIDA
Who, what, where, when, why: AIDA
The American Indian Defence Association - formed in 1923 by anthropologists and writers. Aimed to bring about laws protecting Native American culture, land and traditions. Executive Secretary = john Collier. AIDA blocked Bursum and Leavitt Bills
Who was John Collier?
Admirer of the Pueblo Indians for the resistance they presented to assimilation and the values they represented, Collier sought to protect and restore the lost rights of the Native Americans - regaining self-determination. Too ahead of his time. Made commissioner for Indian Affairs by Roosevelt
What did the Merriam Report of 1928 report?
Condemned the Allotment policy ensued by Dawes; acknowledged the poor standards of life experienced by Native Americans.
What did the Meriam Report lead to?
President Hoover supported the recommendations, and appointed Charles Rhoads as Indian Commissioner. He was tasked to implement changes: off-reservation boarding schools were ended and on-reservation schools improved. Medical facilities were improved but nothing was done to stop allotments.
Why were Rhoads’ reforms somewhat limited?
The Wall Street crash got in the way a little. Rhoads himself was too committed to the principle of assimilation, which caused him to fall short if removing the allotments
1/3: Indian Reorganisation Act - what were the policies of the Wheeler-Howard Act 1934?
NA to have more influence and involvement in the administration of reservations
Gave the right to practice religion and assert cultural identity.
Overturned the 1883 Ceremonial Dances and Celebrations Act
Stopped the sale of NA lands to individual buyers
Restored some unallocated land to allow for expansion and the creation of new reservations
2/3: Indian Reorganisation Act - what were the consequences?
- NA became more involved in the Bureau of Indian Affairs, NA women given more rights and the opportunity to train for domestic work + higher education. E.g. Gladys Tantaquidgeon studied anthropology at the university of Pennslyvania, who went on to work for the Bureau of Indian Affairs
- Created a unique and sellable Indian culture. Profit built schools, irrigation systems and hospitals
What are the obvious flaws of the Wheeler Howard Act?
It was a heavily modified plan from the original design of Collier
It was not designed to protect Indians, but to further the assimilation cause
It did not recognise the Indians’ call for self-determination. Were not even consulted.
What does 1938 census data reveal about native americans?
Their population was growing faster than the national average
What was the effect of WWII?
- 100,000 left reservations
- 25,000 served with distinction during the war
- 75,000 moved to urban areas for defence industries
- Funding to Reservations cut, Japanese Americans relocated en mass onto Reservations 1944
- Post-WWII, discrimination led to many NAs being forced back to Reservations, however some still stayed in NA ghettos.
What was the rate of increase for Urban NAs in big cities?
increased fourfold.
What was formed in 1944?
National Congress of American Indians - by 80 educated from 50 tribes. Worked through courts like the NAACP to challenge discrimination, unequal opportunity and the breaking of treaties. The start of mass protest by NAs.
How did the BIA try to alleviate poverty?
Created job placement centres in major cities in the West
What did the Indian Claims Commission 1946 do?
NA to regain lands owed from treaties - 370 claims filed. Response was very slow, and often financial rather than actual land. Sioux often refused to accept financial compensation. Initially a five year project, ended up going ‘til 1978. Government just wanted to stop treating NAs like wards.
What did Termination bring in 1953?
End of federal control of the BIA: Indians under the same jurisdiction as whites. Recognition of tribal and treaty rights went alongside this. Native Americans were just Americans. The Voluntary Relocation Scheme was designed to lure Native Americans from their reservations
What was the Voluntary Relocation Scheme (VRS) and Indian Vocational Training Act (IVTA)
VRS - system to tempt Native Americans off of Reservations
IVTA - 1956, offered training in a vocation.
When did Termination come to an end?
1968
What was the state of play in 1968 for Native Americans?
- Highest illiteracy rates
- Highest disease rates
- Highest unemployment
- Worst living conditions
What was Lyndon B Johnson’s solution?
Proposed a National Council on Indian Opportunity (NCIO) - Improved education for all, funded by government, better quality homes, sanitation and education of legal rights
How many Indians had left reservations by 1960?
60,000. White hostility reached an all time high
Did 1968 Affirmative Action work?
yeah, kind of.
list some ethnic stats for 1960
25% considered poor, more lived in shanty town housing
Elderly forced back to the Reservations
Unemployment up to 18%
Life expectancy 44 (National Av.: 66)
Native Americans lost 500,000 acres of land in Wisconsin and Oregon. 40-70% returned to reservation through incongruity
What happened to New Deal projects?
- Cut, no funding
What were reservation and urban conditions like during the 1970s?
Reservations: overcrowded, dilapidated, unsanitary
Urban: ghettoisation and culture development. General awareness of bifurcation.
Young Native Americans became militant
what were the aims of the NIYC?
The National Indian Youth Council (1961) wanted to preserve rights (esp. fishing rights, and other injustices of Native Americans through law suits)
What happened in Washington, 1964?
Native Americans assembled for recognition in LBJs War on Poverty
What did Kennedy agree to?
The NACI cries for human and natural resources in reservations. Never fulfilled, unfortunately he took a bullet to the head.
Who joined Red Power?
Young Native Americans, who rejected the NACI for being too slow and a group of assimilated NAs
What book was released in 1969?
Vine Deloria Jnr.’s “Custer Died for your Sins”
What book was published in 1970?
Dee Brown’s “Bury my heart at Wounded Knee”
When was the fish-in staged?
1968, in Washington
When did the Native American movement become militant?
1968 - American Indian Movement - took up racial discrimination against Native Americans who patrolled the streets in unifroms to monitor police activities
What happened during the Siege of Alcatraz 1969?
14 Native American men and women seized the island that formerly belonged to them. Led by Richard Oakes and Adam Fortunate Eagle Nordwell. They offered the govt. $24 worth of beads and cloth (the cost of Manhattan) – govt refused. Occupation increased to 80.
- Huge media coverage: worldwide
- Ended 11 June 1971
what did nixon state in his July 1970 speech?
- Criticised treatment of NAs
What did Nixon do for NAs?
- 1969 appointed Louis R Bruce Jnr (Mohawk-Sioux) as Commissioner for Indian Affairs - made education priority. Barely scratched the surface 1974.
To whom was land returned in 1970?
Makah and Taos Pueblo Indians
What happened in 1972?
- Land returned to Yakama Indians in Washington
- Indian nations regained and rights plus access to fed courts for justice
1972 Act…
Indian Education Act - increased funding to build and improve schools - started closing boarding schools into the 80s
1975 Legislation
Indian Self-determination Act & Education Assistance Act
- Tribes could neg. with BIA to take responsibility for own health education.
- IEAA - parents made more invovled in school
1975 Commission
American Indian Policy Review Commission - looked at history between govt. and Native Americans to improve future policies. 11 commissioners, 5 NAs
What act provided the right to free religion?
The Native American Religious Freedom Act 1978. Sparked fight to protect sacred burial grounds
What act protected the sacred burial grounds?
Native American Graves Protection Act 1990 - protected graves and goods
Which act prevented the forcible removal of children from families?
1978 Indian Child Welfare Act
What did Reagan believe in?
Native Capitalism
How did AIM and Sioux Indians campaign for the return of the Black Hills?
1971 Occupation of Mount Rushmore
What year did AIM take over the BIA?
1972
When was Wounded Knee occupied?
- Violent occupation for 71 days. 1975 agitations led to 2 dead FBI and 1 dead protestor
Criticisms of AIM
Too violent, lost support
What did the National American Rights Fund do?
Fight in the SC to preserve NA culture, right to vote and right to worship. Trained young NAs as attorneys
Oneida vs Oneida?
1974 - Oneida vs Oneida and Madison Counties. Oneida Tribe successfully sued for the return of lands
Fisher Vs Montana
1976 - tribal courts to decide on cases of child adoption
US vs Sioux Nation
1980 - offered $106 million for loss of Black Hills (refused)
Seminole Tribe Vs Butterworth
Tribe could set up casinos even if state forbid it
Charrier Vs Bell
1986 - Remains of a grave in Louisiana to be returned to tribes. 30 states passed laws protecting burial grounds, led to 1990 NA Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
What did the Alaskan receive?
1971 - 40 million acres, $1 billion in compensation
How much were the Sioux given for the Black Hills?
$107 billion
What change can be seen in population between 1970-1990
1970-1990: 800,000 - 1.7 million
How many native americans lived in urban areas by 1990?
2/3rds
What was the economic status of NAs by 1992?
NA income half of whites, unemployment rates highest in US
How many NAs remained on Reservations in 1992?
1/3
