NAs Black Power

Question 1

Positive view

Answer 1

Would suggest that AA NVDA and Black Power movements pre-fated similar NA movements, thus indicating that the former influenced the latter. Notes importance of Black Power ideas of racial consciousness and pride as influencing a pan-tribal identity which was developing amongst NAs

Question 2

Friendship House

Answer 2

The development of institutions such as the Intertribal Friendship House in Oakland, California, takes clear inspiration from the Free Breakfast programme organised by the Black Panther Party

Question 3

Famous people influencing NAs

Answer 3

Several key persons associated with the Black Power Movement, such as Cassius Clay and Dick Gregory, held a benefit concert for the Native American cause following their “Longest Walk’ of 1978

Question 4

AIM’s emergence

Answer 4

The emergence of the American Indian movement followed the period of greatest militancy among the civil rights campaigners, suggesting that it as influenced by it

Question 5

Concept of unity

Answer 5

The Black Power movement aimed to bring unity to African Americans, and this may have encouraged Native Americans to abandon the tribal divisions that lessened the impact of previous protests

Question 6

Aggressive tactics

Answer 6

The more aggressive tactics of the Black Power movement may have encouraged Native Americans to abandon their more peaceful methods, which they believed had failed to bring any improvement

Question 7

Phrase ‘Red Power’

Answer 7

The term ‘Red Power’ appears to have been taken directly from ‘Black Power’ and the tactics of Red Power appear to mirror those of the existing movement

Question 8

Mixed view

Answer 8

Notes partial influence of Black Power on Red Power, but also the differences between the movement. Likely to suggest that Red Power was only one of a range of Native American civil rights movements and responses, so to focus exclusively on this would be too narrow

Question 9

Range of protests

Answer 9

There were a range of protest movements developing in the USA at this time, particularly in the area of San Francisco, and the protests from Native Americans should be seen as one element of that development

Question 10

Attitudinal change

Answer 10

There was a change in attitude in American society towards minority groups and this was reflected in the changing attitudes of presidents such as Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon.

Question 11

Abandonment of NCAI

Answer 11

The mass movement created by Black Power, and the pressure it was able to exert on the government, may have encouraged the Native Americans to adopt a similar policy and to abandon the NCAI, which was seen as supporting those Native Americans who had done well rather than those who were struggling economically

Question 12

Negative view

Answer 12

Would denounce positive interpretations, citing the unique nature of NA protest movements, and their origin as being in NA society, culture and politics. Would point to NA civil rights movements developing as early as WW2, indicating that Red Power had its roots prior to Black Power

Question 13

Post-WW2

Answer 13

After the Second World War, there were clear indication, particularly in response to the policy of termination, that Native Americans were more united in their protests and resistance to government policies and therefore did not need the influence of Black Power

Question 14

Previous NA success

Answer 14

Native American pressure groups were already achieving success - had resulted in the establishment of the Indian Claims Commission

Question 15

Previous militancy

Answer 15

Militancy was already present among some Native American protest groups - The National Indian Youth Council

Question 16

Reasons for growing militancy

Answer 16

The growing militancy among Native Americans was more a response to the conditions in which they found themselves following the policy of termination and their move into urban areas

Question 17

Urban movement

Answer 17

The move into urban areas made it much easier for pressure groups to be organised to complain about working and living conditions

Question 18

Unity of Alcatraz occupants

Answer 18

Those who occupied Alcatraz called themselves ‘Indians of all tribes’.
10,000 Indians from different tribes visited Alcatraz, this inspired them to occupy other disputed federal land.

Question 19

Dates of establishment

Answer 19

Black Panthers established 1966, AIM 1968

Question 20

Lack of NA violence

Answer 20

Guns were rarely shot in movements involving NIYC. Including 1972 Trail of Broken Treaties, Poor People’s Campaign and 1968 Washington fish-in. In 1964 hundreds of NA assembled in Washington for recognition as part of Johnson’s War on Poverty.

Question 21

Appreciation of heritage

Answer 21

Black Power: Oakland Community School 1973; Red Power: Heart of the Earth Survival School in 1972. It taught NAs tribal languages and skills such as hunting and fishing.

Question 22

Examples of previous unity among NAs

Answer 22

5 civilised tribes tried to create a separate state of Sequoyah in Muskogee Convention in 1905, against Curtis Act; SAI 1911 was inter-tribal; NCAI 1944; pan-tribal and included 50 tribes; NIYC 1961, before Black Power.

Question 23

Similarly high unemployment

Answer 23

Unemployment was as high as 25% between 1945 and 1969.

Question 24

NIYC background

Answer 24

The National Indian Youth Council was founded in 1961 in New Mexico and attempted to preserve Indian fishing rights in the North West
In 1968 the NIYC staged a ‘fish-in’ after the Washington State Supreme Court ruled against protecting the fishing rights of the tribes in that area
Also filed lawsuits

Question 25

AIM patrolling

Answer 25

Members of the AIM patrolled the streets wearing red berets and jackets

Question 26

Alcatraz siege

Answer 26

The AIM occupied Alcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay in 1969, claiming the site that had belonged to the Ohlone Indians by ‘right of discovery’
The occupation of Alcatraz Island by 79 Native Americans led by Richard Oakes lasted for two years

Question 27

Rushmore occupation

Answer 27

In 1971 the AIM organised an occupation of Mount Rushmore, a national memorial with the famous sculptures of Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln and Roosevelt which was also the sacred burial grounds of the Lakota Sioux Indians

Question 28

Trail of Broken Treaties

Answer 28

The occupation of Mount Rushmore was followed in 1972 by the ‘Trail of Broken Treaties’ in which AIM members and other Indian leaders organised a protest march on Washington D.C. in pursuit of greater tribal self-determination
This followed the arrival in the city of the ‘Trail of Broken Treaties Caravan’, a fleet of cars, buses and vans carrying around 1,000 protesters representing several of the original tribes
With a presidential election imminent, its purpose was to raise awareness of the plight of Native Americans
Violence erupted when attempts were made to evict the protesters, causing $700,000 of damage

Question 29

Occupation of Wounded Knee

Answer 29

In 1973, AIM members occupied the trading post at Wounded Knee for 71 days to draw public attention to the socio-economic problems of the Lakota Sioux on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota

It ended with a negotiated settlement, and although two leaders of the protest were arrested and charged they were subsequently acquitted

Further violence broke out at Pine Ridge in 1975 when 2 FBI agents and 1 protester were shot and killed