Mussolini: From Prime Minister to Dictator, 1922-1928, Economic Policies Flashcards
1
Q
Which social groups supported Mussolini?
A
- Middle classes
- Landowners and farmers
- Industrialists
- Nationalists
- Catholics and the Church
- The armed forces
- The King
2
Q
What tools did Mussolini use to control support?
A
- Cult of Personality
- Tight control of media (newspaper, television, radio)
- Secret police used
- Propaganda
- Removal of opposition
3
Q
How and why did Victor Emmanuel support Mussolini?
A
Victor Emmanuel handed over power to Mussolini in 1922, because he needed him to secure his own position
4
Q
Why did Mussolini need the support of Victor Emmanuel?
A
Mussolini needed the support of Victor Emmanuel to ensure the armed forces would support him
5
Q
How long was it until Victor Emmanuel stood up to Mussolini?
A
It was not until 1943 that Emmanuel stood up to Mussolini, returning to Parliament those powers which Mussolini had taken from them
6
Q
Why did the armed forces support Mussolini?
A
The armed forces supported Mussolini’s aim to restore national greatness and pursue an active, aggressive foreign policy
7
Q
How did the armed forces view Mussolini’s decision to assume the position of War Minister in 1925?
A
They supported his decision to become War Minister in 1925
8
Q
Which Mussolini policies particularly pleased the armed forces?
A
Mussolini’s:
- Attacks on left-wing dissidents
- Strong line on law and order
- Abandonment of reducing the size of the army
were all very popular with the armed forces
9
Q
Which military successes raised the profile of the armed forces in Italian society?
A
Abyssinia, Vittorrio Veneto, other conquests in Africa
10
Q
Why did industrialists support Mussolini?
A
Industrialists (like Pirelli and Olivetti) were pleased by the Fascist strike-breaking activities and their opposition to trade unions
11
Q
Who else supported Fascist attacks on left wing groups?
A
Police officers, landlords and middle class business people all welcomed Fascist attacks on left wing groups
12
Q
Why did many liberal politicians back the move to grant Mussolini emergency powers?
A
Many liberal politicians preferred a fascist government to a full blown socialist regime, and so backed the move to grant him emergency powers
13
Q
Why did Mussolini have to build relations with the Catholic Church?
A
Mussolini had to build relations with the Catholic Church because it was a very powerful institution
14
Q
What was the attitude of the new Pope Pius, elected in 1921?
A
Pope Pius was strongly anti-Communist, and like many church leaders, saw Fascism as a way of ensuring stability, ending violence and protecting Christian values
15
Q
What did many church leaders see Fascism as offering?
A
Many church leaders saw Fascism as offering resistance to left-wing groups, protecting Christian values (no divorce etc), ending violence, restoring law and order and providing stability
16
Q
How did Mussolini deal with the threat of the popular Popolari Party (of Catholics)?
A
Mussonlini dealt with Popolari by allowing Poplari members to join his coalition, choosing to work with the Church rather than against it
17
Q
What measures did Mussolini introduce which pleased the Church?
A
Mussolini introduced:
- Compulsory RE in schools
- Making contraception a criminal offence
- Improving clergies salaries
- Banning anti-Church journals
- Dropping proposals to take over Church property
18
Q
When did the Lateran Treaties improve the relations between the Church and the State?
A
The Lateran Treaties restored the relationship between the Church and the State in 1929
19
Q
When were the Lateran Treaties?
A
The Lateran Treaties were signed between Mussolini and the Catholic Church in 1929
20
Q
What else did the Lateran Treaties, 1929, set up?
A
The Lateran Treaties in 1929 set up Vatican City as an independent state within Rome with the Pope as Head
21
Q
How much did the state give the Church as compensation for land taken at reunification?
A
The Church was given 750 million liras as compensation for land taken at reunification
22
Q
What did the Concordat do?
A
The Concordat made Roman Catholicism the State religion. The Pope appointed Bishops, although they had to receive the blessing of the government
23
Q
How are the Lateran Treaties, 1929, regarded?
A
The Lateran Treaties, 1929, are regarded as one of the greatest of Mussolini’s achievements
24
Q
What did Mussolini attempt to end in 1922? (PV….)
A
- After 1922, Mussolini aimed to end political violence and return to normal constitutional methods - he formed a government made up of largely non-fascist, right wing elements - a national government
- The National government was generally welcomed
25
What did Mussolini demand in a speech to the Chamber in 1922?
In 1922, Mussolini demanded powers to rule alone - emergency powers
26
Who were for and against Mussolini being granted emergency powers in 1922?
The Socialists and Communists opposed giving Mussolini emergency powers, but leading transformismo politicians such as Giolitti and Salandra voted in favour
27
How did Mussolini attempt to solve the problem of controlling the Fascist squads, 1922-23?
Mussolini created the Fascist Militia in 1923. Ex-army officers were put in charge of local units, and 200 unruly ras were expelled from the movement. The militia were put into uniform and given a high profile
28
Who were the Fascist Militia, created 1923, loyal to?
The Fascist Militia, created in 1923, were loyal to the Duce, not the King
29
Who were the personal bodyguard of Mussolini?
The cheka were the secret personal bodyguard of Mussolini, made up of Fascist thugs who terrorised all opponents
30
When was the Fascist Grand Council created?
The Fascist Grand Council was created in 1922
31
What was the purpose of the Fascist Grand Council, created in 1922?
The purpose of the Fascist Grand Council, created in 1922, was to control leading party members and therefore the party
32
What other factors helped Mussolini consolidate his power?
- A significant growth in Fascist Party membership, reaching 800,000 by the end of 1923
- The closing of the Nationalist Party meant many joined the Fascists, with their own military organisation the 'Blueshirts' merging with the Fascist Militia, created in 1923
- Control of the press was tightly regulated by Mussolini, and he took powers to control the work of the press by decree in 1923
- Violent treatment of the opposition by the Squadristi or militia
- Left wing political and union leaders were harassed by the Fascist militia and spied on by state police
33
Where was the Mezzogiorno?
The Mezzogiorno is Southern Italy
34
How did Fascism gain support in the South (the Mezzogiorno)?
The Fascists did deals with the old liberal and conservative families who controlled the region
- These families realised that they had to work with Mussolini if they were to recieve money from the fascist government in Rome
- Therefore, to make Fascism popular in the South, Mussolini encouraged it to become conservative and acceptable to influential Southern families
35
What was the Acerbo Law, established in 1923? ?
The Acerbo Law, 1923, was the law that stated the party that gained the most votes would gain two thirds of the seats in the Chamber
36
Why was the Acerbo Law, 1923, accepted?
The Acerbo Law, 1923, was generally accepted as it was generally thought that the old Italian system of proportional representation was what had caused such political instability in Liberal Italy
37
Which influential politicians supported the move?
- Giolitti and Salandra supported the Acerbo Law, 1923
38
Why did less convinced deputies accept the Acerbo Law, 1923?
Less convinced deputies accepted the Acerbo Law, 1923, as there were Fascist threats that Mussolini would assume emergency powers if it was not passed
39
What happened in the 1924 elections?
The Acerbo Law worked well for the Fascists in the 1924 elections - the list of government supported candidates, made up of fascists and right wing politicians received two thirds of votes
- As a result, government supporters had the majority in the Chamber
40
Who was Giacomo Matteoti?
Giacomo Matteoti was a Socialist member of the Chamber of Deputies who openly spoke out against the election and Fascist behaviour, giving examples of threats to electors and candidates, and said the results were not vaild
41
What happened to Giacomo Matteoti?
Matteoti was kidnapped and killed in 1924
42
Who did Angelo Rossi suggest to be deeply involved in the murder?
Angelo Rossi gave evidence suggesting Mussolini himself was deeply involved in the murder
43
How did members of the Chambers of deputies respond to the disappearance of Matteoti?
Members of the Chamber walked out in protest at the disappearance of Matteoti, 1924
44
What was the walking out called?
The Chamber deputies walking out was known as the Aventine Secession, 1924
45
What did the members hope to achieve with the Aventine Secession, 1924?
The deputies hoped their gesture and the suspicion surrounding Mussolini would influence Victor Emmaneul to dismiss him
46
What was the consequence of the Aventine Secession, 1924?
The Aventine Secession, 1924, meant that the deputies lost their voice in parliament and could no longer attack their deputies there
47
How did Mussolini tried to appease his critics after the Matteoti crisis?
Mussolini dismissed Rossi, gave up his post as Interior Minister, and Fascist Militia now had to swear an oath of allegiance to the King, not Mussolini
48
How did the ras react to Mussolini's initial handling of the Matteoti crisis?
The ras were angered by the dismissal of leading fascists and by plans to bring the squadristi under army control. 33 ras visited Mussolini in 1924, demanding an end to his attempts to buy peace and demand that he create a fully Fascist state
49
How did Mussolini react in 1925 to the demands of the ras that he create a fully Fascist state, following the Matteoti crisis?
In 1925, Mussolini addressed the Chamber of Deputies, taking a strong line on how his attempts at conciliation had been rejected
50
How was a vote to censure Mussolini dealt with in 1925 following the Matteoti crisis?
A vote to censure Mussolini in 1925 following the Matteoti crisis was shouted down by Mussolini's supporters
51
How did Mussolini survive the Matteoti crisis?
Mussolini survived the Matteoti crisis of 1924-25 because:
- He had the support of the King
- He had the support of the majority of the Chamber of Deputies
- He had the general support of the press
52
How did Mussolini increase his control of the Italian state in 1925?
Mussolini: - tightened press censorship
- newspapers were confiscated
- journalists had to be registered and were intimidated
- critical newspaper editors were dismissed
- the deputies who walked out in the Aventine Secession of 1924 were not permitted to return
- The Popolari declined and the Socialists were incapable of opposing Mussolini
- The Legge Fascistissime of 1925 banned all political parties and non-fascist trade unions, tightening press control and setting up a new secret police
- elected mayors were replaced with government-appointed officials, the podesta
- In 1926, Mussolini was given power to issue laws by personal decree
- The removal of Farinacci in 1926 gave Mussolini control over the party and the country
53
What did the Legge Fascistissime of 1925 do?
The Legge Fascistissime of 1925 banned all political parties and non-fascist trade unions, strengthened media regulation and set up a new secret police
54
What year is Mussolini granted the power to issue laws by personal decree?
Mussolini is granted the power to issue laws by personal decree in 1926
55
Who is removed in 1926, marking Mussolini's control not just over the country, but the party?
Farinacci's removal in 1926 marked the end of the power and illegal activities of the squadristi, confirming Mussolini's power over the Fascist party
56
How did Mussolini and the Fascists control the state?
- The state controlled as much of the lives of individuals as it could
- Media was regulated
- Those who opposed the state were harassed and intimidated by secret police
- In 1926, the Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State was set up to try cases involving anti-fascist activity, run by the militia
- The government withdrew all passports and only issued them to those deemed suitable
57
What was set up in 1926? (TSTFTDOTS)
The Special Tribunal for Defence of the State was set up in 1926, run by Fascist Militia, to try cases involving anti-fascist activity.
58
What did the members hope to achieve with the Aventine Secession, 1924?
The deputies hoped their gesture and the suspicion surrounding Mussolini would influence Victor Emmaneul to dismiss him
59
What was the consequence of the Aventine Secession, 1924?
The Aventine Secession, 1924, meant that the deputies lost their voice in parliament and could no longer attack their deputies there
60
How did Mussolini tried to appease his critics after the Matteoti crisis?
Mussolini dismissed Rossi, gave up his post as Interior Minister, and Fascist Militia now had to swear an oath of allegiance to the King, not Mussolini
61
How did the ras react to Mussolini's initial handling of the Matteoti crisis?
The ras were angered by the dismissal of leading fascists and by plans to bring the squadristi under army control. 33 ras visited Mussolini in 1924, demanding an end to his attempts to buy peace and demand that he create a fully Fascist state
62
How did Mussolini react in 1925 to the demands of the ras that he create a fully Fascist state, following the Matteoti crisis?
In 1925, Mussolini addressed the Chamber of Deputies, taking a strong line on how his attempts at conciliation had been rejected
63
How was a vote to censure Mussolini dealt with in 1925 following the Matteoti crisis?
A vote to censure Mussolini in 1925 following the Matteoti crisis was shouted down by Mussolini's supporters
64
How did Mussolini survive the Matteoti crisis?
Mussolini survived the Matteoti crisis of 1924-25 because:
- He had the support of the King
- He had the support of the majority of the Chamber of Deputies
- He had the general support of the press
65
How did Mussolini increase his control of the Italian state in 1925?
Mussolini: - tightened press censorship
- newspapers were confiscated
- journalists had to be registered and were intimidated
- critical newspaper editors were dismissed
- the deputies who walked out in the Aventine Secession of 1924 were not permitted to return
- The Popolari declined and the Socialists were incapable of opposing Mussolini
- The Legge Fascistissime of 1925 banned all political parties and non-fascist trade unions, tightening press control and setting up a new secret police
- elected mayors were replaced with government-appointed officials, the podesta
- In 1926, Mussolini was given power to issue laws by personal decree
- The removal of Farinacci in 1926 gave Mussolini control over the party and the country
66
What did the Legge Fascistissime of 1925 do?
The Legge Fascistissime of 1925 banned all political parties and non-fascist trade unions, strengthened media regulation and set up a new secret police
67
What year is Mussolini granted the power to issue laws by personal decree?
Mussolini is granted the power to issue laws by personal decree in 1926
68
Who is removed in 1926, marking Mussolini's control not just over the country, but the party?
Farinacci's removal in 1926 marked the end of the power and illegal activities of the squadristi, confirming Mussolini's power over the Fascist party
69
How did Mussolini and the Fascists control the state?
- The state controlled as much of the lives of individuals as it could
- Media was regulated
- Those who opposed the state were harassed and intimidated by secret police
- In 1926, the Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State was set up to try cases involving anti-fascist activity, run by the militia
- The government withdrew all passports and only issued them to those deemed suitable
- Assassination attempts in 1925 and 26 enables Mussolini to introduce strong measures against his opposition
70
Did Mussolini control the State through terror?
- Confino
- Death penalty
- Intimidation of editors and journalists, and opposition
- Secret police, Fascist Militia, squadristi
- Special Tribunal for Defence of the State, 1926
71
How did Mussolini change the way party officers were appointed?
Party officers were now elected form above, rather than elected
72
How many times was party congress held after 1925?
No party congress was held after 1925
73
How many times did the Fascist Grand Council, created in 1922, meet between 1939 and 1942?
The Fascist Grand Council did not meet once between 1939 and 1942
74
How did the Fascist Party lose control, in the rise of Mussolini's dictatorship?
- Mussolini appointed party officers from above - they were no longer elected
- The party lost power and influence over policy
- No party congress was held after 1925
- The Fascist Grand council did not meet at all between 1939 and 1942
75
How was Fascism progressing in the Southern provinces?
Fascist Party remained strong in the provinces - it distributed propaganda, was a source of jobs and patronage and organised leisure activities
76
How many members did the Fascist Party have by 1929?
The Fascist Party had 2.6 million members by 1929
77
How did Mussolini pass laws?
Mussolini could pass laws by personal decree
78
Did the King agree with the laws Mussolini passed?
The King could easily be persuaded into accepting the laws Mussolini decreed
79
How did Mussolini increase his standing with parliament?
Mussolini regularly addressed both houses of Parliament on many issues, increasing his personal standing
80
How many ministries did Mussolini head by 1929?
Mussolini headed 8 ministries by 1929, including foreign affairs, law and order and those responsible for the armed forces
81
How did Mussolini engage in policy issues?
Mussolini interfered in a wide range of policy issues
82
Did ministers need the support of the Duce to pass policies?
Without the support of the Duce, ministers had little chance of promoting their own policies. With his backing, they could hardly fail
83
Which kinds of media did Mussolini enlist to improve his image?
- State-controlled radio
- Censored newspapers
- Compulsory propaganda newsreels before films
84
What did Mussolini create through the media?
The Duce created a strong cult of personality
85
What ways did Mussolini use to create his dictatorship?
- Appointment of party officers rather than election
- Removing party officers influence on policy
- Not calling party congress after 1925
- Not meeting with the Fascist Grand Council between 1939 and 1942
- Heading 8 ministries himself, including foreign affairs and the armed forces
- Using media to create a cult of personality
86
What impact did Mussolini's interference in various ministries have?
Mussolini's interference had detrimental effects on various ministries- he could not delegate effectively, or rise above petty detail
87
What changed in the ideas of cabinet government and responsibility under Mussolini?
There was no sense of cabinet responsibility under Mussolini - each minister derived his responsibility from Mussolini and had obey his orders
88
What happened to many able ministers?
Many able ministers either resigned or were replaced:
- Rossoni (trade union leader) dismissed
- Turati (party secretary) dismissed
- Rocco (justice) dismissed
- ex-ras Dino Grandi
- Balbo (air minister)
89
What did Starace, new party secretary do?
Starace, as party secretary, increased the size of the party and increased emphasis on the cult of personality
90
Who did Mussolini ally himself with in order to maintain control of the state?
Mussolini allied himself with conservative forces to maintain control (the Church, Lateran Treaties 1929, industrialists etc)
91
What did Mussolini make himself in 1925?
Mussolini made himself minister for the armed forces in 1925 - perhaps why Italy was so unprepared for war in 1940
92
Which institutions brought and end to much political violence?
The police force and courts did much to reduce political violence
93
What did Mussolini do the the Mafia?
Mussolini either destroyed or drove the mafia to the ground - number of murders in Sicily reduced to 25 from 178 in 1924
94
Why did thousands of civil servants join the Fascist Party?
Thousands of civil servants joined the Fascist Party to protect their jobs - the number of civil servants increased under Mussolini
95
Why was there so little opposition to the regime?
Many opponents of the regime were forced into exile, whilst others went voluntarily. With the media censored or controlled by the state, there was little opportunity for criticism of the government
96
How did Mussolini try to indoctrinate children?
Youth movements encouraging war for boys and childbearing for girls were set up, children were taught to obey those in charge - youth movements included 'Sons of the She Wolf' and the 'Ballila', in which boys did military exercises
97
What was the role of women in Mussolini's Italy?
Mussolini believed the woman's role was to bear many children - he began the Battle for Births, aiming for a population of 60 million by 1950 - was a failure
98
What was the Dopolavaro?
The Dopolavaro were programmes administered by the government, set up in 1925
99
What did the Dopolavaro, 1925, offer?
- Sport provision
- Heavily subsidised day trips
- Seaside holidays
- Summer camps
- cheap railway fairs
- Pleased the people
- Compensated for lower wages
100
How did Mussolini's Italy do in the sporting world?
Italy won the world cup in 1934 and 1938, and won 12 gold medals in 1932 and had a World Champion boxer Primo Carnero, and cycling and skiing expanded greatly
101
What effect did sporting triumphs have in Italy?
Sporting triumphs raised the self esteem of Italy, helping to explain why do many Italians remained content with the regime
102
How was cinema used to further the regime?
Newsreels were screened everywhere as propaganda, and the state put money into subsidising Italian film-making and into training technicians
103
What was the idea of the Corporate State?
The idea of the Corporate State was that all economic activity and political life would be organised through corporations, with both workers and employers involved
104
What did Rocco set up between 192and 1928?
Rocco set up corporations of workers and employers with state-appointed officials on the committee, in each major area of the economy
105
What did the Corporations do?
The Corporations would simply negotiate over labour relations and wage=rates
106
When was the Ministry of Corporations introduced, and what did it do?
The Ministry of Corporations was created to control the working of the system
107
Why was the Corporate State unsuccessful?
The corporations had only limited use and were dominated by state-appointed officials, industrialists disliked them and Mussolini failed to back them
As late as 1934, they only existed in 22 areas of the economy
108
How was the Italian economy between 1922 and 1925?
Between 1922 and 1925, the Italian economy flourished under liberal free-market policies and aided by the post-war economic boom
Exports rose and unemployment fell , with regular tax cuts up to 1925
109
Why did the economic situation worsen in 1924?
The economic situation worsened in 1924 due to a bad harvest, causing the value of the lira to fall and prices to inflate
110
What was the Battle for the Lira, 1926?
The Battle for the Lira was Mussolini's push for the lira to be revalued from 150 to 90 against the pound
111
What was the effect of the Battle for the Lira, 1926?
The effect of the Battle for the Lira was that the Italian currency was over-valued against other countries
- Helped heavy industries by making imported raw materials cheaper
- Damaged export trade
- State begins to get increasingly involved in the economy
112
What effect did the world trade depression of the 1930s have on Italy's economy?
The world trade depression hit Italy's economy hard as it had much money tied up in long term loans to depressed industries
113
What were the IRI and the Institute of Industrial Reconstruction, founded in 1931 and 1933?
The IRI, 1931, and the Institute of Industrial Reconstruction 1933, enabled the government to buy the industrial securities deposited in the banks as security for loans and went on to buy bank shares as well
114
What were banks prevented from doing, which increasingly became the responsibility of the IMI, 1931?
Banks were prevented from long term loans, which increasingly became the job of the IRI, 1931
115
How did the Italian economy do compared to other economies during the world trade depression of the 1930s?
Most historians agree that the Italian economy survived the world trade depression fairly well, as the Italian economy was more agricultural than industrial
116
What happened to government involvement in the economy after the Depression?
Government involvement continued in the economy after the Depression. Industries remained in private ownership with the government in support of large firms
117
What were the disadvantages of state involvement in the economy?
State involvement in the economy often led to increased bureaucracy and the emergence of monopolies
118
What was the most important economic policy aim as early as 1930?
Autarky was the most important economic aim as early as 1930 - it's importance increased after 1935
119
What did Autarky involve?
Autarky involved encouraging heavy industry, particularly those of military importance, and self sufficiency in food, particularly grain
120
Why did Autarky lower the living standards of workers and peasants to levels lower than in 1920s?
- Demand for consumer goods was depressed to reduce imports
- The need for self sufficiency dominated economic policy
- Consequently living standards were lower for workers and peasants than in the 1920s
121
Why did self sufficiency become even more important after 1935? (LoN)
After the League of Nations imposed sanctions on Italy after the invasion of Ethiopia, self sufficiency became even more important
122
What areas was Autarky not possible to achieve in?
Autarky was never going to be achieved in key areas such as coal, oil and raw materials for metals industries
123
Where were economic shortages made up from?
The idea that economic shortages could be made up from the Italian colonies in Africa was mistaken - these came instead from Germany
124
What successes did Autarky have?
Ship building industry developed rapidly as did programmes of electrification and road building
- The first traffic roads (autostrade) were built to connect towns in northern Italy
- The car industry concentrated successfully on the home market, doubling its workforce in the 1930s
125
What happened to the railways in the 1920s-30s?
The railway improved greatly 0 not due to Fascists, due to work done before 1922 to improve trains, tracks and rolling stock
126
What improvements were made to the railways?
The main tourist trains ran more punctually than before, and by 1930 5000 kilometres of track had been electrified - Fascist propaganda was eager to show this success
127
How many kilometres of railway had been electrified by 1929?
5000 kilometres of railway had been electrified by 1929
128
What was the aim of the Battle for the Grain, 1925?
The aim of the Battle for the Grain, 1925, was to reduce the volume of foreign wheat imports, now subject to high import duties
129
How did the government conduct the Battle for the Grain, 1925?
The state provided storage facilities, marketing agencies, training courses and publicity campaigns in new methods
- New areas of land were brought into production, sometimes on land better used for other crops in the North
130
What was the impact of the Battle for the Grain, 1925?
In the late 1930s, wheat production was double what it had been in the era before Mussolini and 40 per cent higher than in the early 1920s
- Wheat imports were dramatically reduced
131
What was the Battle for the Marshes, 1928?
A battle to clear marshland so that it could be used for farming
132
Were there successes in the Battle of the Marshes, 1929?
Some projects were a success - one area that was cleared was the Pontine Marshes, near Rome (within easy observation of Rome)
- By 1935, they were providing land for resettlement
133
Was the Battle for the Marshes a success, 1928?
The Battle for the Marshes were abandoned by 1940. Most land reclamation projects were a failure
- Fewer than 10,000 peasants were actually resettled on reclaimed land
- Fascism did not overturn traditional patterns of land owning to revive rural Italy
134
What policies did the Mussolini introduce?
- Autarky
- Battle for the Lira
- Battle for Births
- Battle for the Marshes
-
135
How successful were Fascist economic policies?
- Government involvement helped the Italian economy through the worst effects of the Depression
- The banking system was protected, heavy industries were built up and the country became almost self sufficient in wheat
- Government subsidies helped develop the electricity network based upon hydroelectric power and a programme of road building
- BUT Battles for Grain and Lira had very limited success
- High import tariffs often protected inefficient industries
- Most worrying was the unquestioning investment in armaments and the way in which the economy was directed to military needs
- Despite this, by 1939 Italy was still not prepared for war
136
What was the impact of the Battle for the Grain, 1925?
In the late 1930s, wheat production was double what it had been in the era before Mussolini and 40 per cent higher than in the early 1920s
- Wheat imports were dramatically reduced
137
What was the Battle for the Marshes, 1928?
A battle to clear marshland so that it could be used for farming
138
Were there successes in the Battle of the Marshes, 1929?
Some projects were a success - one area that was cleared was the Pontine Marshes, near Rome (within easy observation of Rome)
- By 1935, they were providing land for resettlement
139
Was the Battle for the Marshes a success, 1928?
The Battle for the Marshes
140
What policies did the Mussolini introduce?
- Autarky
- Battle for the Lira
- Battle for Births
- Battle for the Marshes
-
