Music Learning Theories & Motivation Flashcards
What do learning theories originate from?
Learning theories originate with questions. Questions lead researchers to conduct systematic observations on the basis of which plausible answers can be constructed. Systematic observations lead to theories.
What is the purpose of theories in learning?
The purpose of theories is to explain, predict, and possibly control outcomes. A particular theory stems from a particular perspective: thus, theories carry “worldviews” and they look at things through a “lens”
What is learning defined as?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s capacity to make a response. Change is not due to maturation or temporary states.
Learning Theory Outcomes
Working with humans makes defining a single, best learning theory challenging. Each theory may reveal different aspects of the teaching/learning process. Theories can help us understand specific situations, but no one theory is comprehensive.
What are some assumptions about learning theories?
No single learning theory is adequate to account for all aspects of learning. A theory of learning does not automatically prescribe the best way to teach. What people learn through formal instruction is only a very small subset of what they know. Most learning takes place in the “natural world” - informal learning
What is classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning associates involuntary behavior with a stimulus. Conditioning can shape behaviors unintentionally.
Who discovered classical conditioning?
Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov through experiments with dogs. A natural stimulus paired with a conditioned stimulus can produce a response.
What did John Watson believe about classical conditioning?
That it underlies all human learning. He saw behaviors as “built-in” and argued conditioning occurs from birth through adulthood.
What are the Limits of Classical Conditioning?
Can it account for learning complex ideas like language or abstract theories? While not the sole explanation, it has a significant impact on behavior.
Behaviorism
Associates voluntary action with consequences
What did E. L. Thorndike study?
E. L. Thorndike studied learning behavior in cats, developing the learning curve to show gradual improvement over time. (Behaviorism)
What are the laws of learning proposed by Thorndike?
The laws of learning are: Law of Exercise and Law of Effect. Thorndike believes these laws apply to humans, though human learning is more complex.
Law of Exercise (Thorndike)
the more the behavior is practiced or exercised, the more strongly it will be established or “learned”.
B.F. Skinner & Operant Conditioning
Behavior can be shaped gradually through reinforcement (e.g. teaching a pigeon to dance). Rewards can be used to motivate learning - getting the right answer provides positive feedback.
What are Skinner’s beliefs on reinforcement?
Reinforcement influences learning in all areas: balancing, playing games, speaking, writing, etc. One environment builds a repertoire of behaviors through operant conditioning.
Law of Effect (Thorndike)
if the response to a stimulus has a pleasing effect (or the reward is worth it) the probability of the learner repeating that exact response is higher.
How Did Thorndike’s Law of Effect Differ from Classical Conditioning?
Thorndike’s views provided a more versatile learning mechanism than classical conditioning, allowing any response to any stimulus to be conditioned through immediate reinforcement. This approach suggested limitless possibilities for learning and behavior modification.
What did B.F. Skinner contribute to operant conditioning?
B.F. Skinner expanded on Thorndike’s ideas using rats and pigeons. He discovered that rewarding a behavior randomly rather than every time strengthens persistence.
What is Gestalt Theory?
Learning is something the learner actively does not just something that happens to them. Learners are mentally and physically active during the process.
Who are the key figures of Gestalt Theory and what did they have in common?
Kohler, Wertheimer, Koffka, Lewin. They all reject Locke’s atomistic view that our minds receive simple ideas that are later combined into complex ideas. To use Locke’s approach is to distort.
How does learning occur in Gestalt Theory?
Learning occurs through insight - an “aha” moment when elements of the problem connect clearly. Insight is not dependent on reinforcement like operant conditioning. The learner must understand the problem elements and have a surveyable overall view.
How is meaning achieved through Gestalt Theory?
Meaning is “built in” to the ideas we receive right at the start. Gestalt means “organization” or “configuration,” the point being that we experience the world in meaningful patterns or organized wholes.
According to Gestalt psychologists - what is important in understanding human learning?
We respond to meanings; we make intellectual connections. We learn something by achieving insight, by coming to “see” the link between certain ideas – not by reinforcement of our operant behavior.
The Gestalt Approach
We experience the world in meaningful patterns or organized wholes.
Kohler’s thoughts on Behaviorism
Kohler critiqued Thorndike’s “no-win” situations and created problem-solving tasks for chimpanzees where all necessary elements were visible.
John Piaget
Saw thinking and learning as biological functions to adapt to the environment. Studied his own children and a small group of young learners. He believed all children worldwide go through developmental stages.
Jean Piaget on Learning
Believed that learning is a process of constructing one’s own knowledge through experiences. (Constructivist Approach) Learners actively explore and interact with their environment to build knowledge.
How is knowledge constructed according to Jean Piaget?
Knowledge is constructed by individuals sharing common structural features because we all interpret the same reality.
Schemas
Mental “file folders” to organize knowledge
Adaptation:
Adjusting schemas to fit new information
Assimilation
Adding new info to an existing schema
Accommodation
Creating a new schema for new information
What are Piaget’s stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor (0-2 yrs old): 5 Senses – experience everything; “own point of view”.
Preoperational (2-7 yrs old): Symbolic functions; ego-centric; intuitive.
Concrete Operational (7-11 yrs old): Logic (sorting; reasoning); Unique-ness
Formal Operational (11+): Think Abstract; Deductive reasoning
Constructivism
Learners construct knowledge rather than passively take in information. People build on their own representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas)
What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)?
ZPD is the optimal conditions for learning, where learners are pushed beyond their current abilities, but not too far beyond. Learners work in a space where they can succeed with the help of guidance or collaboration. (Related to Hedgehog Theory).
ZPD Overview
Learning is most effective when tasks are neither too easy nor too difficult but are within the learner’s potential to master with the right support.
What is situated learning?
Performance increases when the assessment and the learning occur in similar environments. Students perform better when they are in situations with similar students. They have similar learning aptitudes. Students learn best in small groups of three or four rather than small or bigger groups
What is the definition of transfer of learning?
Transfer of learning is applying a concept or skill learned in one situation to another.
Positive transfer of learning
Prior learning helps facilitate learning in a new situation (e.g. learning piano helps with other keyboard instruments)
Negative transfer of learning
Prior learning hinders learning in a new situation (e.g., learning to drive an automatic car makes it harder to drive a manual)
Zero transfer of learning
Prior learning has no effect on the new task
Transfer of learnings’ role in education
The goal is for students to understand concepts deeply, allowing them to transfer knowledge to new situations
Generalization
The ability to apply learned skills to new but similar situations
What are the factors that influence transfer of learning?
Similarity; Practice and master; Reflection
Far vs. Near Transfer of learning
Near: the learned material closely matches the new context. Far: learned concepts are applied to much different situations, requiring abstract thinking and problem-solving.
What is attribution theory?
Attribution theory studies the explanations people give for their successes and failures and their consequences.
Success-oriented students
attribute success to ability and effort and failure to lack of proper effort. (This is why failure can motivate the already successful student)
Failure-oriented students
attribute failure to lack of ability and success to external factors such as a generous teacher or an easy task (Success is not sustainable so it causes more anxiety; why try?)
What is the hedgehog theory?
From Edward L. Walker. Learning simplifies complex material over time. If the complexity level is optimal, the task remains engaging and pleasant. When it’s too easy, tasks become boring or disengaging. When it’s too complex, tasks become frustrating, leading to disengagement. The “hedgehog” is engaged when the complexity is just right and disengaged
Optimal Complexity Principle
Humans seek an optimal level of complexity, enjoying tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult. The most interesting tasks tend to be higher on the psychological complexity scale, although they might be more difficult than the most pleasant tasks.
What does Carol Dweck’s research suggest about praise?
Praise of effort is more effective than praising intelligence. Specific attribute praise is better than vague praise.
Uses of praise
If praise is seen as meritless, children discount sincere praise. Over-praising can reduce persistence, as children may quit when rewards disappear. A child deprived of the opportunity to discuss mistakes cannot learn from them. Say nothing, say what you saw, talk less, ask more.
What are rubrics?
Rubrics are scoring guides that define expectations for student performance, ensuring fair, consistent, and efficient assessment. Can provide meaningful feedback to students.
What are best practices for rubrics?
Create specific criteria, clear descriptions of performance levels, and use rubrics for self-assessment, peer review, and reflection.
What is brain-based learning?
Brain-based learning is understanding how the brain learns to create effective teaching strategies that promote engagement, motivation, and retention.
Key Principles of Brain-Based Learning
Neuroplasticity, active engagement, meaningful context, positive learning environment, diverse learning styles, stress and learning, sleep, nutrition, and exercise.
What are practical strategies for educators in brain-based learning?
Strategies include incorporating active learning, creating a positive environment, and promoting critical thinking. Also differentiating instruction, using visual aids and multimedia, provide regular feedback, encourage collaboration, make learning relevant, prioritize emotional well-being and embrace neuroplasticity.
What are some brain-based learning considerations?
Framing (approaching a task with a specific mindset can alter attitude and outcome); Performance Environment, Optimal Group Size (3-4), Sensory experiences, Concept Formation (concrete to abstract)
Who is B.F. Skinner?
B.F. Skinner was an American psychologist known for his work on operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning
Theory of learning where behavior is influenced by its consequences. Behavior is best understood by examining its causes and consequences, focusing on how rewards and punishments shape actions.
Positive Reinforcement
Increases behavior when applied (e.g. reward for completing homework early)
Negative Reinforcement
Increases behavior when removed (e.g. stopping a buzzing sound by rolling up a window)
Punishment
Decreases behavior (e.g. losing privileges for breaking rules)
Vygotsky
ZPD; Social learning (much of what we learn comes from interacting with others); He argued that the ability to solve problems independently and with assistance is a better measure of potential than traditional IQ tests.
What is Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development?
ZPD is the gap between what a learner can do independently and with assistance.
What are Bruner’s stages of conceptual learning?
To learn any concept, a person must go through three states, in this order:
Enactive - experiencing the concept directly (Concrete)
Iconic - manipulation of icons (look like the concept to explore the concept (Concrete)
Symbolic - attachment or arbitrary symbols to represent the concept, unrelated to the concept (Abstract)
Process of conceptual learning (Bruner)
If a child has a difficulty operating at a certain level, go to the prior level and remediate. More life experience enables people to move faster through the levels, or to make connections with other concepts and move up a level.
What did Dewey advocate for in education?
Dewey advocated for active learning and the social nature of learning. Problem-Solving Process, identifying a problem, coming up with a solution, testing it, and reassessing. School as a community and learning through communication.
What is Music Learning Theory (MLT) according to Gordon?
MLT focuses on how music is learned, emphasizing the process of audiation.
What is the purpose of studying a discipline?
Studying a discipline is like studying a map; it shows relationships and dangers, but does not replace hands-on experience.
What is audiation?
Audiation is the ability to imagine musical sound when it is not present. It is the process of making sense of musical sound while listening to, performing, creating, reading, and writing music.
What are the seven types of audiation (Gordon)?
- Listening to music.
- Reading music silently or while performing.
- Notating actual musical sound when taking music dictation.
- Recalling music silently or while performing.
- Notating music from memory.
- Improvising or creating music silently or while performing.
- Notating improvised or created music.
What are the four processes of audiation?
- Listening
- Reading
- Recalling
- Creating
What are the musical activities in music education?
Musical activities include thinking about music, writing music, and performing music.
What is discrimination learning?
Discrimination learning (rote learning) includes aural/oral learning, verbal association learning, partial synthesis learning, symbolic association learning, and composite synthesis learning.
What is inference learning?
Inference learning involves teaching themselves, interacting with new or unfamiliar music, and includes generalizing learning, creativity or improvisation learning, and theoretical understanding.
