Murdoch - Scotland and Europe (in Making & Unmaking V2)

Question 1

Early modern period

Perspectives on Scotland (p126)

Answer 1

Varied. Those with no 1st hand knowledge were negative. Those with = much more positive.

Several changes in Scotland during the period, moving from Roman Catholicism to Calvinist presbyterianism. With this shift came move away from traditional alignment with France in Auld Alliance. Denmark & Norway remained important & England became focus of diplomatic attention as both Protestant.

Intermittently, Scotland courted Sweden & Dutch Republic.

Question 2

Connections

Answer 2

European govs kept abreast of Scots affairs. Many Scots were involved in trade or professions abroad eg in expanding commercial empires of Spain, portugal, Dutch & English.
Travellers often returned & spread info. Occasionally in print eg traveller Wiliam Lithgow (1632) & soldier Robert Munro (1637).

Question 3

Geographical & political orientation (1)

Answer 3

At start period (C16), Scotland & neighbours were all Catholic so trade, commerce, politics & war shaped relationships.
1469 - Margaret, daughter of Christian I of Kalmar Union (Denmark, Norway & Sweden) married James III. Marriage also brought Orkney & Shetland into Scottish kingdom and resulted in Scot-Scand pact, expanded in 1499 to include France via re-confirmation of Treaty of Denmark

Question 4

Geographical & political orientation (2)

Answer 4

After 1521, Scandinavia in internal turmoil resulting in Gustav Vasa as king of independent Sweden & Frederick I as king of rump of Kalmar Union (Denmark & Norway).
Scottish supported Sweden in the crisis and links with Denmark declined. Scot-Swed link = “Unnofficial Alliance” from 1569 to 1654

Question 5

Geographical & political orientation (3)

Answer 5

English invasion of Scotland in 1540s = Rough Wooing
Auld Alliance renewed during 1550s but Scots began to fear French annexation. 1560 Reformation drove France & Scotland apart.
Protestant strongholds in Germany, Switzerland and Low Countries took on new importance to Scotland.
After Reformation, period of peace between Scotland & England lasting 90 years.

Question 6

Geographical & political orientation (4)

Reorientation - James VI

Answer 6

Between Reformation & start of James VI’s personal reign in 1585, focus was on domestic affairs. In 1586, ‘amity’ agreed with England & diplomatic exchanges with Denmark-Norway continued in hope of renewing Northern Alliance.
1589 - Anna of Denmark marries James VI.
Marriage established alliance of significance to Britain & Ireland after 1603. This was principal international alliance until 1645.

Question 7

Geographical & political orientation (5)

After 1603 union (p129)

Answer 7

Scotland’s alliances dictated foreign policy of 3 kingdoms: Scotland, England, Ireland
English war with Spain ended 1604
“British” treaty with France concluded 1605
Alliance with Denmark-Norway was central throughout James VI/I’s reign
1613 - James’ daughter Elizabeth marries Frederick V of the Palatinate. His decision to accept throne of Bohenmia was trigger for Europe-wide Thirty Years’ War (1618 - 1648).

Question 8

Geographical & political orientation (6)

European wars

Answer 8

Called “German Wars” or “War of Religion” by Scots at the time led Scotland into both conflict and alliance.

Question 9

Geographical & political orientation (7)

British civil war

Answer 9

Covenanters sought foreign military help from Sweden and Dutch Republic for war against Charles I via extensive connections of agents & emissaries
Scottish Jesuits ensured France remained neutral even through Charles’ Queen Henrietta-Maria was French (by trading Scots military resources in return?)
Christian IV of Denmark-Norway recognised Covenanters’ ‘just’ cause and failed to support his nephew Charles

Question 10

Geographical & political orientation (8)

Solemn League & Covenant 1643
» English approached this as convenient expedient to get military support and be cast aside as soon as possible.
» English worked to marginalise Scots on international stage & dissolved alliance unilaterally in 1647. After that English parliament took lead on foreign policy

Answer 10

Agreement between Scots & English Parliamentarians for military support against Royalists in return for civil/religious union under presbyterian-parliamentary system. To include Ireland.
When Cromwell gained control, he ignored it.
More details here: https://www.britannica.com/event/Solemn-League-and-Covenant-England-Scotland-1643
Led to formation of ‘Committee of Both Kingdoms’ responsible for foreign policy for both England & Scotland

Question 11

Geographical & political orientation (9)

Proposed ‘confederal polity’

Answer 11

Scots aimed for confederal union of Scotland, Sweden & Dutch Republic with England also joining. Much debated but never realised. English parliament in particular was suspicious.
Author argues Scotland lost place as significant European power in these negotiations (but why?)

Question 12

Geographical & political orientation (10)

Anglo-Scottish war returns - 1649

Answer 12

After Charles I’s execution, Scots supported monarchy but England declared republic.
Cromwell invaded and occupied Scotland 1650 - 1659. This pushed Scotland off European stage

Question 13

Geographical & political orientation (11)

Restoration

After restoration, bishops restored & all ministers appointed since 1649 ordered to resign and seek re-appointment. Some refused.

Answer 13

Several 100 Covenanters, were deposed & held open-air services (conventicles). These violently dispered by soldiers provoked armed rebellion.
Fear was of co-ordinted rising by Covenanters with support from Dutch
Reconciliation attempts failed & ‘confessional civil war’ broke out between ministers & field preachers
Staunchest Covenanters renouned allegiance to king. Many not captured/killed went into exile. Community in Dutch Republic got support from William of Orange

Question 14

Geographical & political orientation (12)

Answer 14

Scottish Calvinists flocked to Lithuania from 1660 onwards eventually dominating town’s admin & attracting other exiles. Strong Scots community lasted into mid-C18. North Sea port of Bremen also popular.

Question 15

Geographical & political orientation (13)

‘Glorious Revolution’ 1688-9

James VII & II replaced by daugher Mary & son-in-law William of Orange

Answer 15

William brought many Scots exiles and regiments of his Scots Brigade.
Episcopy overturned & Presbyterianism returned to Scotland ensured through ‘Claim of Right’ and ‘Act Abolishing Prelacy’, 1689 and ‘Act Establishing Prebyterian Government’, 1690.
Many exiles returned & new wave of episcopalian refugees left, first to England then to Continent forming core of European Jacobite movement

Question 16

Military migrations 1 (p131)

Answer 16

C16 & C17 - Scots fought in most European armies, as individuals, groups & whole armies.
Most military migration after 1560 & Scots often fought where political alliances were sought eg Dutch Republic.
!573 - 9, 3,100 Scots fought in Low Countries in war against Catholic Spain. (Ref’d to as 80 yrs war in Netherlands). Permanent Scots Brigade formed in Dutch Republic - in service till end C18. Brigade was 3 regiments. Helped relations between states. Resisted counter-Reformation & avoided direct war with Spain/Habsburg Empire.

Question 17

Military migrations 2

Answer 17

Military forces took chaplains to preach Scottish take on Calvinism in Scots & Gaelic. Troops often radicalised & more ‘confessionally aware’ than when left for foreign service.
Simultaneously, Scots bcm more regular part Scandinavian armies

Question 18

Military migrations 3

Scandinavia

Answer 18

Scots in small bands served as mercenaries from start C16. 1570, Archibald Ruthven licensed to rais 1600 troops for Sweden. Scottish Danish Alliance renewed 1589 so possible that Scots would face each other o opposing sides in any intra-Scandi Kalmar war.
James VI’s solution was to allow private troop recruitment only for armies not hostile to Stewarts or allies.
Pattern of fighting in France, Dutch Republic & Scandinvia lasted throughout early modern period.

Question 19

Military migrations 4 (p132)

30 years war & Habsburg Empire

Answer 19

War broke out when Frederick, Elector Palatine & James VI’s son-in-law, accepted Bohemia throne against will of (soon-to-be) Habsburg emperor Ferdinand II.
50k Scots & similar no. Englishmen volunteered to support James’ daughter Elizabeth. Smaller group (mostly officers) served with Habsburg armies

Question 20

Military migrations 5

Destruction

Answer 20

Sir Andrew Gray recruited 1500 Scots & 1000 English in 1620 to fight for Bohemia. Defeated. Gray recruited again in 1624. Led 4000 Scots in 12000-strong British force to join private army of Count Mansfeld. 50% (6000 men) died en route. Remaining Mansfeld forces destroyed 1626 & survivors joined Scandinavian armies. Losses due to inept leadership plus disease & put Scots nobles off future private ventures with English.

Question 21

Military migrations 6

Answer 21

Scots levied new troops to serve under Christian IV of Denmark-Norway who joined war against Habsburgs in 1625.
By 1627 recruitment begun for 9000 Scots for Danish-Norwegian service; 3 regiments of 3000. Joined 2000 Scots already in Danish service. Impact was significant.
1625 - 1629: over 300 Scots officers joined Danish forces, outnumbering Danes 3:1. Two these became generals: Robert Scott and earl of Nithsdale. 25 were rank of major or higher

Question 22

Military migrations 7

Answer 22

Denmark-Norway unsuccessful against Emperor Ferdinand & Christian IV withdrew from war in 1629 (Treaty of Lubeck). Paved way for Swedish intervention & remaining Scots transferred to Swedish army.

Question 23

Military migrations 8 (p132)

p133

Answer 23

By late 1630, c. 12,000 Scots in Swedish army. By war’s end 1648, c. 30k Scots had fought in Germany for Sweden.
1 in 8 Sweden’s officers were Scots. Recruiting for Sweden continued through 1630s but ended 1638 ‘cause of tension ‘tween monarchy & Covenanters who were building own army against king. 10s of 1000s Scots fought against CatholicHabsburgs & allies. Didn’t want to see that negated by Charles I foisting ‘crypto-Catholic Anglican uniformity’ on Scots churches.

Question 24

Military migrations 9

Other Habsburg opponents

Answer 24

Some Catholic states opposed, or did not ally with, Habsburgs. Scots enlisted with them too eg Venice has several 1000s during 1630s & 40s. France entered war on side of Sweden in 1630s & larger nos. Scots soldiers joined existing Garde Ecossais. Two regiments, 1632 and ‘34 with reinforcements 1637. Lord Andrew Gray’s regiment joined these two in 1638. All 3 led by Catholics but majority troops Presbyterian. Presence Scots helped ensure France didn’t intervene in Covenanters’ conflict with Charles I.

Question 25

Military migrations 10

Treaty of London 1641

Peace of Westphalia 1648

Answer 25

Ended Covenanter-Charles I conflict. Recruitment for European wars restarted. c. 15,000 men enlisted for French service

Soon after ‘Peace’ ended 30 yrs war, Scots in French merged into Regiment de Douglas. Cromwell occupation in 1651 made it hard for many to return home. Many continued in military service in Scandinavia & Low Countries but some became mercenaries

Question 26

Military migrations 11

Internationally famous mercenaries

Answer 26

General Patrick Grodon - served in Russia
Col John Mollinson & Col Andrew Melville - served under duke of Lüneburg-Celle (northern German duchy. part of Holy Roman Empire)

Question 27

Military migrations 12 (p134)

Answer 27

After 1640, officers loyal to Charles I travelled abroad & found service in countries sympathetic to Stewart monarch eg Bergenhus regiment in Norway comanded by Scottish royalist officer.
By 1650s, Scots of all persuasions opted for foreign service. Some had choice of service or imprisonment under Cromwell’s occupation. Led to another Scandinavian enlistment 1655-6 with 2 regiments of 2000 going to Sweden. Smaller groups to France, Poland-Lithuania & Russia. Dutch Scots Brigade continued to get new recruits & volunteers joined Dutch East & West India Companies & other colonial armies

Question 28

Military migrations 13

Resoration to Culloden

Answer 28

Political change in Scotland from 1660 - 1746 drove several waves of military refugees to continent, usual to Dutch Republic but also traditional destinations of France & Scandinavia.
Exodus of Stewart supporters after 1689 (William of Orange) enlisting in Russia, Sweden, France & Spain.
Age of mass foreign enlistment drew to a close after this (tho’ several 100 Jacobite officers remained in Europe).

Question 29

Military migrations 14

Emergence of British Army

Answer 29

After 1707, most Scots served abroad as part of British Army.
One of 1st regular Scots military forece in continental Europe, Scots Brigade in Dutch Republic, was also the last - ‘nationalised’ 1782 as a Dutch regiment (purpose of Scots Brigade was to protect Protestantism in Europe)

Question 30

Military migrations 15

The cost

Answer 30

Unclear whether military migrants intended to return home. Most didn’t
Death rate was very high from disease, combat, shipwreck.
12000 of 13500 Scots in Danish service killed between 1626 - 1629 according to poem to Charles I in 1633.
Men in Scots Brigade & those garrisoned in Norway, Sweden, Poland-Lithuania fared better.

Question 31

Military migrations 16 (p135)

Returning

Answer 31

Veterans did return eg Field Marshal Alexander Leslie served in Sweden for 30 years but ret’d with several 100 Scots to join Covenanters’ army in 1638.
Chaplains also kept contact with home.
1649 - other veterans under Marquis of Montrose returned to oppose Covenanter-supported government
Scots Brigade ret’d with William of Orange so achieving goal of sweeping away Catholicism and completing presbyterian settlement of Scotland

Question 32

Commercial migrations 1 (p135)

Packmen

Answer 32

Packman or pedlar was historically linked to Scots martial tradition and part of complex mercantile hierarchy.
Packmen worked for travelling merchants employed by larger syndicates.
Syndicates sent merchants to specific location to buy & sell goods. Merchants employed packmen to stock up from factories & warehouses in established towns.
Merchants also employed apprentices & servants

Question 33

Commercial migrations 2

Packmen - one cog in complex & sophisticated machinery of Scottish commercial activity in Europe.

Answer 33

Worked from private houses.
Business was on credit or in exchange for farm produce & raw materials
Fewer overheads & greater freedom of movement Scots could sell same goods as competitors but cheaper.

Question 34

Commercial migrations 3 (p136)

Packmen - efforts to restrict trade activities

Answer 34

The number of packmen & advantages over local shopkeepers created tension. Several states legislated against them.
Denmark - packmen forbidden in countryside & merchants denied municipal rights unless proven residents.
Prussia 1558 - issued similar edict
Poland 1566 - ban on packmen selling in countryside
Norway 1607 - Scots sailors only allowed to sell bread in the market. 1620 rule extended to forbid them becoming itinerant pedlars

Question 35

Commercial migrations 4

Packmen - efforts to restrict trade activities
Poland-Lithuania

Packmen continued trading & were common sight across northern Europe. Became stereotype of Scottish merchant (though reality was well-off/rich merchants doing long-distance trade)

Answer 35

Numbers of Scots caused tension. Some estimated c. 1620-1 as many as 30k or even 50k (but estimate questionable).
1594 - Sigismund III tries to curb influx of Scots but little impact
1616 - Scottish factor in Poland, Patrick Gordon draws up strict code but this & other measures also failed
Scots community in Danzig sought James VI’s intervention to prevent more arrivals. James sent Hugh Mowatt to Poland but had little impact.
Belief in that no. Scots in Poland too high caused ‘uproar’ among local traders but legislation to curb might have been as much to do with trying to remove competition.

Question 36

Commercial migrations 5

Establishment response

Rising population meant increasing demand for Scots wool, mutton & livestock

Answer 36

James VI appears to have supported attempts to curb numbers Scots packmen in Europe but:
» probably appreciated benefit to economy of allowing them
» reduced redundant popn in Scotland
» built up commercial expertise
» accession to English throne also opened new territories to Scots merchants & packmen

Question 37

Commercial migrations 6 (p137)

Idea that packmen retained little contact with Scotland may not be accurate

Answer 37

Pedlars = important link between Scotland & Baltic. Brought Scots ‘cottage industry’ goods to market (often cloth-related eg hats, gloves & linen) & returned to countryside with more refined goods for sale. Merchants built capital this way & expanded to places Scots communities already existed or where favourable conditions were known. Once established newcomers invited others to join them so creating migration chains

Question 38

Commercial migrations 7

Expansion desitnations

Answer 38

Ireland - Merchants took advantage of plantation of Ulster after 1609 as gateway to rest of island
American colonies - fewer went than to Ireland or Baltic until C18.

Question 39

Commercial migrations 8

Trading companies: some attempts to form companies trading with Africa, East Indies & American colonies but generally no formal trading companies

Scots merchants not connected to trading companies unaffected if company lost rights

Answer 39

Unlike English Eastland Company or Muscovy Company, Scots didn’t establish mercantile monopoly.
Lack formal companies restricting exports to any one port was advantage in long run as Scots traders simply went where markets were best.
Scots merchants in Elbing (northern Poland) & Danzig credited with impt role in developing Swedish commerce & that between Britain & Baltic. Success partly due to exploiting existing networks of Scots & developing new ones by integrating into host communities. Not an option for mercantile companies

Question 40

Commercial migrations 9 (p138)

Answer 40

Some merchants took citizenship of the town/country where they traded eg Charles Ramsay in Elbing. Others settled on German-speaking Baltic coast from Pomerania (straddles modern German-Poland border) to East Prussia (approx location of modern-day Russian province Kaliningrad) Also large Scottish communities in Lithuania.
Scots communities formed bortherhoods & societies in Danig, Lublin & dozen places in Poland. Often used to conceal illegal Scottish immigrants trading in towns.

Question 41

Commercial migrations 10

Stewart- Oldenburg marriage alliance 1589

Answer 41

Gave Scots same rights as Danes & Norwegians & vice versa in respective countries.
Norway - numerous Scots communities in Stavanger, Bergen & Trondheim involved in timber trade (so important that still referred to in Norway as Skottehandelen - the Scottish trade). C16 & C17 known as Skottetiden (Scottish period) of Norwegian history.
Denmark - fewer Scots settlers than Norway but sig communities in Elsinore & Copenhagen & scattering elsewhere mostly in ‘carrier trade’ in Baltic Sea.

Question 42

Commercial migrations 11 (p139)

Sweden

Merchants also got involved in production eg cloth & iron for trading within Sweden.
In later C17, c. 20 Scots families owned 45 Swedish foundries & forges = sig slice country’s iron industry

Answer 42

Arrangements for citizenship less formal than for Denmark-Norway.
1607 - limits placed on non-burgess traders to 8-weeks per year but many Scots continued to trade without citizenship. Small, cohesive Scots networks involved transient & embedded merchants.
Best known group in Gothenburg - c. 50 merchants & families estblished from 1621 to end century.
Stockholm community of longer standing & bigger with over 100 merchants

Question 43

Commercial migrations 12 (p140)

Answer 43

Scots also at Riga, Narva & elsewhere. As Swedish citizen, unaffected in 1643 when Sweden forbade foreigners having shares in cargoes and in 1667 enforced citizenship rule for ships’ skippers & pilots carrying Swedish cargo.
Integrated Scots had advantage over English competitors who stayed short time then went home.
Similar Scots merchant networks found in Rotterdam, Hamburg, Bruges, Paris, Bordeaux & Mediterranean ports.

Question 44

Commercial migrations 13

Trade in England

Answer 44

Scots were in English cities to trade too esp London.
By 1610, were exploiting legal loophole to trade with Low Countries without going through Scottish staple port at Veere. Loophole later closed.
London Scots closely involved in northern European trade network. Also Scots in Newcastle, Hull, Bristol.

Question 45

Scotland and Europe, Scotland in Europe 1

During early modern period need for Protestant allies overshadowed long-standing alliances eg with France,

Answer 45

Strengthened relations between Scotland & England, enabled 1603 regnal union & allowed Scots to penetrate English colonies in ireland & Americas, & England itself
Renewed alliances with Denmark-Norway, good relations with Sweden & Dutch Republic allowed new migrations (military migration has diverted attention from importance of civilian)

Question 46

Scotland and Europe, Scotland in Europe 2 (p141)

Nova Scotia or Darien dominate early modern debate but Europe drew largest no. migrants & provided greatest opps

Overseas entrepreurs repatriated capital & commodities to Scotland

Answer 46

Americas of little importance or interest at this time.
Evidence suggests Scots who integrated into foreign commercial & military empires (English, Dutch, Swedish) were more successful than those (eg Company of Scotland) emulating English & Dutch commercial monopolies & colonial ventures.
Unobtrusiveness of integrated Scots seems to have facilited their success.
Case for including overseas entrepreneurs in assessments of Scotland’s economic & political impact and economic status on eve of 1707 union

Question 47

Scotland and Europe, Scotland in Europe 3 (p142)

Scots overseas integration didn’t end with or because of 1707.

No dramatic re-orientation of Scots migration to British colonies or sudden abandonment of European commercial partners.

Answer 47

Networks in/with Scandinavia, France, Baltic, Dutch Republic continued throughout C18 eg Swedish East India Company est 1731 with help of Colin Campbell & many other Scots.
Same year, 1st joint-stock company in Lithuania was project of 9 integrated Scots. They established links with Scots in Konigsberg, Danzig & Riga & sought investment from Britain & so established another commercial network.