Mtuner 4 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the function of the default mode network?740
A
It’s a network of brain regions that are active when a person is paying attention to internal thought.
2
Q
What is considered to be one of the disadvantages to being bilingual in children?
A
Bilingual children have a smaller vocabulary in each language.
3
Q
Aphasia
A
is an impairment of language, affecting the production or comprehension of speech and the ability to read or write.
4
Q
The fast mapping capacity of human children seem to provide a possible explanation for what?
A
Naming explosion
that leads to large increases in their spoken vocabulary. Although 18 months is a common age for this increase, it can occur in children between the ages of 15 and 24 months.
5
Q
haptics
A
is any form of interaction involving touch
6
Q
Kinesthesis
A
Kinesthesis, also referred to as kinesthesia, is the perception of body movements. It involves being able to detect changes in body position and movements without relying on information from the five senses.
7
Q
Nociception
A
is the activity of nerve pathways that respond to uncomfortable stimulation. Nerve endings called nociceptors initiate pain messages that travel to the central nervous system
8
Q
Avalibity heuristic
A
As images of the planes crashing into the World Trade Center were more easily available immediately following the attacks, people chose to travel by car rather than plane.
9
Q
The FOXP2 gene likely plays a role in what?
A
Likely plays a role in one of the components of language
10
Q
What is one of the criticisms in research using language-trained primates?
A
Humans communicate via phrase-based syntax but language-trained primates are studied using symbols
11
Q
Attempting to solve a problem by using the same routine approach even though the same approach will not work can be defined as what?
A
Mental set is defined as when a person attempts to solve a new problem with the same cognitive routine.
12
Q
After the 1800’s it became acceptable for psychologists to study human behaviour. This change in time- and culture-bound beliefs reflects a new ___.
A
zeitgeist is bliefs
13
Q
Neuroimaging studies have shown that people respond to facts that minimize negative emotions and enhance positive emotions. What does this provide support for?
A
comfination bias
14
Q
How the Human Genome Project can help with behvavioural genomics?
A
The Human Genome Project itself did not directly provide a cure for a disease or an understanding of any particular behaviour. Researchers can now compare the genotypes of different groups of people (e.g., depressed and non-depressed individuals) to look for differences that might shed light on the cause of different conditions.
15
Q
Jane realizes that she has lost her wallet after coming back from her grandparents’ house. She decides to call her grandparents first instead of calling the cab that she took home. This best represents what problem-solving technique?
A
herusitic
16
Q
Approximately how many different phonemes do the human vocal cords have the ability to produce?
A
200
17
Q
What do researchers typically use to understand the “big picture” portrayed by research results?
A
Descriptive statistics are used by researchers to understand the “big picture” portrayed by research results.
18
Q
When a person finds an object that could be used to solve a problem and the only solution they can think of is the most obvious function of the object, what term best describes this?
A
Functional fixedness best describes this.
19
Q
When a person finds an object that could be used to solve a problem and the only solution they can think of is the most obvious function of the object, what term best describes this?
A
Functional fixedness best describes this.
20
Q
Memory recall is primarily influenced by:
A
Effective memory retrieval depends greatly on how the memory is stored, e.g., it is much easier to recall a memory stored with structure and context than one without.
21
Q
Damage to which area of the brain causes locked-in syndrome?
A
Damage to the pons is the most frequent cause of locked-in syndrome.
22
Q
the pons
A
Besides the medulla oblongata, your brainstem also has a structure called the pons. The pons is a major structure in the upper part of your brainstem. It is involved in the control of breathing, communication between different parts of the brain, and sensations such as hearing, taste, and balance.
23
Q
The medulla
A
The medulla oblongata helps regulate breathing, heart and blood vessel function, digestion, sneezing, and swallowing. This part of the brain is a center for respiration and circulation.
24
Q
Frontal lone
A
You use your frontal lobe nearly everyday. You use it to make decisions, such as what to eat or drink for breakfast in the morning, as well as for thinking or studying for a test. The frontal lobe is also where our personality is formed and where we can carry out higher mental processes such as planning. In addition, the frontal …
25
midbrain
The midbrain or mesencephalon (from the Greek mesos, middle, and enkephalos, brain) is a portion of the central nervous system associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep/wake, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation.
26
Dr. Bob, in order to test the reliability of a new questionnaire that he developed, wants to administer it to a group of participants once next week and then in 6 months. What form of reliability is he assessing?
Test-retest reliability assesses whether the observations obtained across different time points are similar.
27
______ suggests that humans are composed exclusively of physical matter; whereas _____ that humans have material and non-material (i.e., mind or soul) components
Materialism is the belief that humans are composed exclusively of physical matter (e.g., just a body) but dualism suggests that we have a mind or a soul that is separate from our physical body.
28
What form of reliability is most crucial when assessing non-verbal behavior of participants through observation?
Inter-rater reliability ensures that experimenters that rate a given observation agree on the measurements that were taken.
29
what is animism
Animism was the belief that all objects had souls and that the everything in the world was composed of one of the four elements (earth, air, water, fire). It was believed that objects of similar elements wanted to be together and this explained observable phenomenon. For example, water wants to be with water and that's why rain falls down from the sky because it wants to rejoin the water in rivers.
30
what is empericism
Empiricism is the tenet that knowledge comes through experience. From a scientific perspective it means that knowledge about the world is based on careful observation as opposed to speculations.
31
What is a main problem associated with naturalistic observation?
The mere presence of the observer may change the behavior that is being observed during naturalistic observation.
32
scientific method
The scientific method is a way of learning about the world through collecting observations, developing theories to explain them, and using theories to predict them. These individuals do not have any theories or hypotheses to inform their experiments.
33
validity
an instrument which measures what it claims to measure
34
Hawthorne effect
The behavior change that occurs as a result of being observed is refereed to as the Hawthorne effect.
35
determinism
the belief of all events is governed by cause and effect rather than free will
36
determinism
the belief of all events is governed by cause and effect rather than free will
37
Hippocrates believed that ____ were the result of combining different levels of the four different ____.
termperants from humors
38
Konstantine is listening to his friend talk about how having a pet cat during childhood increases their risk of developing schizophrenia. He is curious, but skeptical and considered the merit of he is hearing as well as the merit of his own assumptions and beliefs about schizophrenia. What element of scientific literacy is Konstantine demonstrating?
Critical thinking involves exercising curiosity and skepticism when evaluating the claims of others and with our own assumptions and beliefs.
39
What does it mean to say that an instrument produces messy measurements?
unreliabl
40
what is gerneralizibility
if something can be applied to other things
41
Saad understands every key term in his introduction to psychology textbook. In order to demonstrate a high level of scientific literacy he would also have to show that that he is able to analyze and ___ scientific information.
Scientific literacy is the ability to understand, analyze, and apply scientific information.
42
What is the foundation of scientific methodology?
objective measurements
43
1. The use of the scientific method to study behaviour thoughts, and experiences is known as _____.
psychology
44
A news report describes anxiety as a disorder which stems from increased cortisol levels, low self-esteem, and social isolation. This news report has discussed a(n) ___ model.
A biopsychosocial model explains behaviour as a product of biological (e.g., chemicals, hormones), psychological (e.g., emotions, personalities), and social (e.g., culture, family, peers) factors.
45
What is an operational definition in the context of research?
Operational definitions are statements that describe how an observation is recorded.
46
a theory vs hypothesis
A theory is an explanation for a broad range of observations; whereas a hypothesis is a testable prediction about processes that can be observed and measure.
47
The principle of ______ suggests that simplest of all competing explanations should be the one that we accept
The principle of parsimony means that things should be interpreted with the simplest scientific evidence that fits the evidence.
48
why ar esuper tasters different
Some of the individual differences in taste sensitivity may be due to the number of taste buds found on the tongue. Supertasters have many more taste buds than the average person.
49
ecological vallidity
meaning that the results of a lab stuy can be appied to or repeated in the natural environment
50
demand charectheristics
are information about the participants should behave by the emperimenter or exeprimenter context
51
social desirebility
means that research participants respone in ways that increase that will have them viewed favorably
52
single blind study
participents dont know the true purpose of the study
53
double blind
neither pariticpent or participent knows the exact treatment for any individual
54
double blind
neither pariticpent or participent knows the exact treatment for any individual
55
within subjects design
an experimental design in which the same participents all respond to all types of stimuli or experimental condtions
56
quasi experimental
is a research technique in which two or more groups are compapred are selected based on a predetermined cahteristics rather than random assignment
57
third variable
lurking variable
58
scientifi c misconduct
changing data
59
negatively skewd distribution
the curve has an extended tail to the left cluster,
60
positively skewed
distribution long tail which is on the right of theclusters
61
hypothesis test
a statistical method of evaluating whether difference among groups are meaningful, or could been arrived at chance alone
62
p value
lower p value mean lower chanfe of occurence of results being based off chance alone
63
genotype
genetic makeup of an organism. Unique to each individual
64
phenotype
physical type or behavioural charectheristics such as eye color shape or even personality
65
chromosomes
structures lined with all genes an individual inherits
66
trisomony
down syndrome
67
homozygous
the same TT
68
heterozygous
differnt genes Tt
69
behavioural genomics
the study of DNA and the ways in which specific genes are related to behaviour
70
bahvioral genetics
how genes and environment influece behavior
71
monozygotic vs dizygotic
one or multiple eggs
72
heritiability
influence of gene to create individual difference. Eg if having a mole on right arm is 50% genetic 50% of individual differences within the populat was due to tgenetic factors
73
intrasexual selecton
a situation which memebers of same sex compete to win the mate of the opposite sex
74
intersexual selection
memebrs of one sex select a mating partner based off desireable trate
75
for a trait to evolve it must be
adaptive
76
neurons
are a major type of cell found in the nervous system: sends and receives messages
77
cell body
aka soma holds nucleus
78
dendrites
recieve messages from other cells
79
axon
transports information from the cell body to the end of the neuron
80
neurotransmitters
a chemical that functions as messengers allowing neurons to communicate with each other
81
glial cells
specialized cells mounting immune responses in teh brain, removing waste and synchronizing the neurvous activity. outnumber neurons by 10 t one
82
myelin
fatty sheath of insulates axons from one and another, results in increased speed and eficency in communication. also preserves the signal, speeds up the transfer
83
ms
when immune system attcks myelin
84
resting potential
stable state during which the cell is not transmitting messages: around 70 mV
85
electrostatic and concentration gradient
electrostate gradient is the outside and inside have differnt charges, the concentration gradient means that different types of ions are more densely packed on one side of membrane than the other.
86
action potential
a wave of electrical activity that orginates at the base of the axon and rapidly traves down its length
87
refractory period
where neuron cannot fire
88
synapses
the microscopically small spaces the seperate nerve ells
89
all or none prpincipal
nerve cells always fire at teh same strength
90
synaptic cleft
the minute space between the axon terminal and the dendrite
91
reuptake
a process whereby the neurotransmitter molecules are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynpatic neuron
92
glutamate
is most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brains vertabras.
93
GABA
is inhibitory neurotransmitory preventing aciton potentions
94
acetylohole
movement and attention
95
dopamine
control of movement, reward seeking, cognition and attention
96
norepinephrine
memory attention to new or important stimuli, regulation of sleep and mood
97
serotonin
regulation of sleep, appetite and mood
98
agonistss
drugs that enhance or mimic the effects of a neuortransmitters action
99
antagonists
inhibits neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing synthesis of neurotransmitters
100
hormones
chemicals secreted by glans of the endocrine system
101
hypothalmus
regulates biological needs and motivational systems
102
pituary gland
master gland of endocrine that effects hormone production
103
adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands located adjacent to kidneys that stress hormones such as cortisol and epinephrine
104
endorphin
hormone produced by pituitary gland and hypothalmus that functions to reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure. SEX, strenuous activity, or injury
105
testosterone
is a hormone that serves multiple functions driving physical and sexual deelopment. surging during sex and threats. Testosterone is correlated with more aggresive feeling and thoughts but not caused by it
106
Central nervous sytem
consists of brain and spinal cord
107
peripheral nervous sytem
neurvous sytems aht transmits singals between the brain and the rest of the body is dividide into autonomic and somatic.
108
somatic
nerves that control muscles nerves and impulses. any voluntary movement
109
autonomic
regulating organs and glands breathing etc
110
sympathetic nervoussytems
flight and fight response, hearth rate, dialated pupils and decreased salivary flow
111
parasympathetic nervous system
maintains homeostatic balance in the prescence of change, works to return to ta baseline, nonemergency state
112
brainstem
which the stem or bottom of the brain consistes of two structures: medulla and pons.
113
medulla
perform basic functions such as heartrate breathing and bp
114
pons
wakefullness and dreaming
115
hindbrain: brainstem
breathing, hr, sleep, wakefullness,
116
hindbrain: brainstem
balance, coordination, timing of movements, attention and emotion
117
midbrain: superior colliculus
orienting visual attention
118
Mid:brain inferior colliculus
orienting auditory attention
119
Forebrain:basal ganglia
movement, reward processing
120
Forebrain:amygdala
emotion
121
Forebrain:hippocampus
memory
122
Forebrain:hypothalamus
temperture regulation, motivation(hunger, thirst, sex)
123
Forebrain:thanlmus
sensory relay
124
Cerebral cortex:frontal lobe
thought, planning, language, movement
125
Cerebral cortex:parietal lobe
sensory processing, bodilly awareness
126
Cerebral cortex:occipital lobe
visaul processing
127
Cerebral cortex:temporal lobe
hearing, object recognition, language, emotion
128
cerebellum
little brain, monitors movement, mainting balance, attention, and emotonal responses.
129
midbrain
relay area
130
forebrain
visually obvious consists of folds and grooves. Emotion, mmeoyr, thinking, and reasoning
131
basal ganglia
planned movemnts, skill learning, and intergrating sensory and movement info with the brains reward system
132
limbic system
an integrated netowrk involvved in emoetion and memory
133
amygdala
facilitates memory formations for emotional events meditates fear
134
occipital lobes
visual info is processed
135
parital lobes
involved in our experients of touch as well our bodily awareness
136
temporal lobes
sides of brain and do hearing and higher level vision such as recognition
137
frontal lobes
planning, regulating impulses emotion, language production, and voluntary movement
138
prefrontal cortex
higher-order cognitive functions such as
| decision making and controlling our attention.
139
hemispheric specialization
right arty and visual spatial left is language and math
140
neuroplasticity
the
capacity of the brain to change and rewire itself based on individual
experience.
141
leisioning
intentionally damage area to see whhat changes
142
transcranial magnetic stimulation
electromagnetic pulse is sent
143
control in lesion study
sham group
144
structural neuroimaging
type of brain scanning that produces images of differnt structures
145
CT scan computerized tomography
x rays are sent through the brain by a tube that rotates around the head
146
MRi
technique in which clear images based on how energy abosrbs
147
Diffusion tensor imagin
measures whitematter pathways
148
perception
organizing information
149
transduction
receptors transform the physical energy of the outside world into neural impulses
150
transduction
receptors transform the physical energy of the outside world into neural impulses
151
sensory adaptation
reduction of activity in sensory re
152
What is sensory perception?
The primary auditory cortex is situated in the temporal lobe. Interestingly the auditory cortices in the two hemispheres of the brain are not equally sensitive, and the right hemisphere is able to detect small changes in pitch than the left.
153
basal ganglia
The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions including: control of voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, routine behaviors or "habits" such as teeth grinding, eye movements, cognition,[1] and emotion.[2]
154
mechanoreceptor
A mechanoreceptor is a sensory receptor that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion. Normally there are four main types in glabrous mammalian skin: lamellar corpuscles, tactile corpuscles, Merkel nerve endings, and bulbous corpuscles.
155
johannes muller
doctrine of specific nerve enegies
156
absolute thresholds
minimum of enegy or quantity for stimuli to be reliabily detected atleast 50% of the time
157
differnce threshold
smallest difference that can be detected a change
158
signal detection theory
states whether stimuli is percieved based off sensory experience and judgement
159
psychophysics
study of how physical events relate to psychological perceptions
160
Is it reasonable to conclude that subliminal messages
| have a strong effect on behaviour?
No, although research shows they might have mild
| effects.
161
Gestalt psychology
whole> parts when percieving
162
proximity and similarity
proximity, objects close to each other are grouped, similarity is when similar objects
163
continuity
objects are continuous that randomly chancing
164
closure
filling in gaps of perception
165
top down processing
perceptions from expectations or prior knowledge
166
bottom up processing
individual bits of sensory information
167
selective attention
focussing on a single thing
168
inattentional blindness
failure to see something because they are focussing on something else: gorilla in basketball
169
sclera
white outer surface of the ey
170
cornea
clear layerthat covers the front portion of the eye and also contributes to the eyes ability to focus
171
pupil
regulates the light
172
iris
round muscle that adjusts the pupil and gives eyes the color
173
lens
focuses light
174
retina
lines inner surface of the eye and consists of specialized receptors that absorb light and send info to light
175
optic nerve
eye fibres that connect to brain
176
optic disc
blind spot
177
rods
are photoreceptors that are sensetive to low light
178
cones
senseitive to different wavelengths
179
fovea
central region of retina
180
opponent process theory
percieve colors in terms of opposite pairs
181
perceptual constancy
objects have constant shapre size and color
182
binocular depth cues
distance ques based on differing percptives
183
convergence
eye muscles contract so both eyes focus on same objecct
184
retinal disparity
difference in position seen by eyes
185
monocular cues
depth cues based on one eye. based on accumodation
186
motion parallax
close objects move faster than further ones "EG riding in a car looking out"
187
prosopagnosia
inability to see faces
188
in thalmus where optic nerves convge from r and l
lateral geniculate nucleus
189
what proof that no area for facse
place it triggers is also the same as images of experitse
190
cochlea
a fluid filled memebrain coiled in a snailike shape convert sound into neural inpulses 4.3
191
sound localization
the process of identifying where
| sound comes from
192
place theory of hearing
how we perceive pitch is based on the
| location (place) along the basilar membrane that sound stimulates, but does not apply to hair cells for lower freqs
193
volley principl
A single
neuron cannot fi re more than 1000 times per second,
but a group of neurons could certainly accomplish this
feat. According to the volley principle, groups of neurons
fi re in alternating (hence the term “volley”) fashion.
A sound measuring 5000 Hz can be perceived because
groups of neurons fi re in rapid succession.
194
volley principl
A single
neuron cannot fi re more than 1000 times per second,
but a group of neurons could certainly accomplish this
feat. According to the volley principle, groups of neurons
fi re in alternating (hence the term “volley”) fashion.
A sound measuring 5000 Hz can be perceived because
groups of neurons fi re in rapid succession.
195
gate control theory
pain interection of nerves that inhibit these message
196
phantom limb pain
nerve cells in cortex continue to be active despite
197
mirror for therapy
to use enact visual appearance of having both limbs, reorganization of the somatosensory cortex
198
gustatory system
functions in the sensation and perception of taste
199
olfactory
| system
is involved in smell—the detection of airborne particles
| with specialized receptors located in the nose
200
olfactory epithelium
a thin layer of cells that are lined by sensory receptors
| called cilia. receptor cells for smell
201
multimodal integration
, the ability
to combine sensation from different modalities such as vision and
hearing into a single integrated perception.
202
entrainment
synchronized to external cues such as light,
| temperature, or even a clock
203
endogenous
endogenous
rhythms, biological rhythms that are generated by our body
independent of external cues such as light.
204
stage1
breathing bp hr decreasesting. theta waves
205
stage2
sleep spindles
| clusters of high-frequency but low-amplitude waves
206
stage 3 sleep
```
delta waves (large, looping waves that are
high-amplitude and low-frequency
```
207
REM sleep
— a stage of sleep characterized
by quickening brain waves, inhibited body movement,
and rapid eye movements ( REM).
208
Which of the following is the most likely order of sleep
| stages during the fi rst 90 minutes of a night of rest?
Stages 1-2-3-4-3-2-1-REM
209
reserve and
| protect hypothesis
suggests that two more adaptive functions
of sleep are preserving energy and protecting the organism
from harm
210
sleep displacement
, occurs when an individual
is prevented from sleeping at the normal time although
she may be able to sleep earlier or later in the day than usual.
211
Manifest content
the images and storylines
that we dream about. In many of our dreams, the manifest
content involves sexuality and aggression, forms of fufilment
212
latent context
the actual symbolic meaning of a dream built on
| suppressed sexual or aggressive urges.
213
activation– synthesis
| hypothesis
suggests that dreams arise from brain activity originating
from bursts of excitatory messages from the pons, a part of
the brain stem
214
problem-solving theory
he theory that
| thoughts and concerns are continuous from waking to sleeping
215
night terrors
intense bouts of panic and
arousal that awaken the individual, typically in a heightened
emotional state
216
restless legs syndrome
is a persistent feeling of
discomfort in the legs and the urge to continuously shift them
into diff erent positions
217
somnambulism
sleepwalking and othethings
218
Narcolepsy
y is a disorder in which a person experiences
| extreme daytime sleepiness and even sleep attacks.
219
principles of sleep
. Use your bed for sleeping only, not for working or studying. (Sexual activity is an appropriate exception to the rule.)
2. Do not turn sleep into work. Putting effort into falling asleep generally leads to arousal instead of sleep.
3. Keep your clock out of sight. Watching the clock increases pressure to sleep and worries about getting enough sleep.
4. Get exercise early during the day. Exercise may not increase the amount of sleep, but it may help you sleep better. Exercising late in the day,
however, may leave you restless and aroused at bedtime.
5. Avoid substances that disrupt sleep. Such substances include caffeine (in coffee, tea, many soft drinks, and other sources), nicotine, and alcohol.
Illicit drugs such as cocaine, marijuana, and ecstasy also disrupt healthy sleep.
6. If you lie in bed worrying at night, schedule evening time to deal with stress. Write down your worries and stressors for approximately
30 minutes prior to bedtime.
7. If you continue to lie in bed without sleeping for 30 minutes, get up and do something else until you are about to fall asleep, and then return to
bed.
8. Get up at the same time every morning. Although this practice may lead to sleepiness the first day or two, eventually it helps set the daily rhythm.
9. If you still have problems sleeping after four weeks, consider seeing a sleep specialist to get tested for sleep apnea, restless legs syndrome, or
other sleep problems that may require more specific interventions.
220
hypnosis
procudure of inducing a heightend state of suggestibility
221
ideomoto suggestions
specific actions
222
challeng suggestions
lost the ability to do something
223
cognitive perceptual suggestions
forget information or reduce brain
224
Dissociation theory
explains hypnosis as a unique
state in which consciousness is divided into two parts: an
observer and a hidden observer (Hilgard, 1977, 1986).
225
social-cognitive theory,
explains hypnosis by emphasizing the degree to which beliefs
| and expectations contribute to increased suggestibility
226
Meditation
s any procedure that involves a shift in consciousness
to a state in which an individual is highly focused,
aware, and in control of mental processes.
227
brain death
h, a condition
in which the brain, specifi cally including the brain stem, no
longer functions
228
coma
is a state marked
| by a complete loss of consciousness
229
persistent
| vegetative state,
e, a state of minimal to no
consciousness in which the patient’s eyes may be
open, and the individual will develop sleep–wake
cycles without clear signs of consciousness. The likelihood of recovery
from a vegetative state is time dependent. If a patient
emerges from this state within the first few months,
he or she could regain some form of consciousness.
In contrast, if symptoms do not improve after three
months, the patient is classifi ed as being in a permanent
vegetative state; the chances of recovery from that diagnosis
decrease sharply
230
```
minimally
conscious state (MCS
```
), a disordered state of consciousness
marked by the ability to show some behaviours that
suggest at least partial consciousness
231
locked-in syndrome
a disorder in which the patient
is aware and awake but, because of an inability to move his
or her body, appears unconscious
232
st effects
altering of neurtransmitters, preventing reuptake, blocking receptors, binding to receptors. Changes how we feel act think etc.
233
drugs are more potent
takes time for body to associate drug with effect on body and brain
234
psychoactive drugs
substances that aff ect
| thinking, behaviour, perception, and emotion
235
Opiates
are drugs such
as heroin and morphine that reduce pain and induce
extremely intense feelings of euphoria.
236
drugs differ
Drugs can provide different subjective experiences
| depending on the culture.
237
Why are benzodiazepines believed to be safer than
| barbiturates?
Barbiturates can inhibit the brain’s control of
| breathing.
238
classical conditioning
learning
that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was
originally caused by another stimulus
pavlovs dog bell
239
unconditioned
| stimulus (US)
is a stimulus that elicits a refl exive
response without learning.
foood
240
unconditioned response
| (UR
is a refl exive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned
| stimulus
241
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a onceneutral
stimulus that later elicits a conditioned response
because it has a history of being paired with an unconditioned
242
conditioned response (CR)
is the learned
| response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus
243
Acquisition
is the
initial phase of learning in which a response
is established;
244
Extinction
n is the loss or weakening of a conditioned response
when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no
longer occur togethe
245
spontaneous
| recovery
or the reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response
246
generalization
n is a process in which a
response that originally occurs to a specifi c stimulus also occurs
to diff erent, though similar, stimuli.
247
discrimination
which occurs when an organism learns to
respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli that
may be similar to the original stimulus
248
e conditioned
| emotional responses
consist of emotional and physiological
| responses that develop to a specifi c object or situation.
249
preparedness
the
biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to
a particular class of stimuli. Snakes are high, lilys are low
250
latent inhibitio
before it is paired with a US makes it less likely
| that conditioning will occur after a single episode of illness
251
operant conditioning
a type of
| learning in which behaviour is influenced by consequences.
252
reinforcement vs punishment
Reinforcement: this increases the chances of a behaviour
occurring again
• Punishment: this decreases the chances of a behaviour
occurring again
• Positive: this means that a stimulus is added to a
situation; positive can refer to reinforcement or
punishment
• Negative: this means that a stimulus is removed from
a situation; negative can refer to reinforcement or
punishment
253
Avoidance learning
learning to avoid something
254
escape
| learning
occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is
| already present
255
negative punishment vs positive punishment
positive is a punishment given, negative punishment is removal of a privelige etc
256
negative reinforcement vs positive reinforcement
positive is priase etc, negative is removal of neg stimuli
257
reinforcement vs puishment
effect on behavior
258
Primary
| reinforcer
s consist of reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic
motivational needs—needs that aff ect an individual’s ability to
survive (and, if possible, reproduce).
259
secondary reinforcers
consist of stimuli that acquire their reinforcing eff ects only
after we learn that they have value
260
discriminative
| stimulus
a cue or event that indicates
that a response, if made, will be
reinforced. eg. if about to leave in shorts. weather is tis ds
261
shaping
sperant response is created by
| reinforcing successive approximations of that response
262
schedules of reinforcement
continuous reinforcemen always, partial (intermittent) reinforcement only a
certain number of responses are rewarded, or a certain amount
of time must pass before reinforcement is available
fixed-ratio schedule reinforcement is delivered
after a specifi c number of responses have been completed. variable-ratio schedule the number of responses
required to receive reinforcement varies according to an average
263
fi xed-interval schedule
reinforces the fi rst
| response occurring after a set amount of time passes
264
variableinterval
| schedul
in which the first response is reinforced
| following a variable amount of time
265
partial reinforcement eff ect
refers to a phenomenon in which organisms that have been conditioned
under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than
those conditioned under continuous reinforcemen
266
Contiguity
Punishment is most effective when it occurs immediately after the behaviour. Many convicted criminals are not
sentenced until many months after they have committed an offence. Children are given detention that may not begin
until hours later. Long delays in punishment are known to reduce its effectiveness
267
Show alternatives
Punishment is more successful, and side effects are reduced, if the individual is clear on how reinforcement can be
obtained by engaging in appropriate behaviours.
268
latent learning
learning that is
not immediately expressed by a response until the organism is
reinforced for doing so. EG rats with always food, or never food or is given food eventually. Eventual food is given shows learning was always happening
269
SOR theory
stimulusorganism-response
270
Observational learning
social learning
271
classical categorization;
objects
or events are categorized according to a certain set of rules or
by a specific set of features—
272
graded membership—
bservation
that some concepts appear to make better category members than
others
273
Prototypes
s are mental representations of an average category member
274
semantic network
an
interconnected set of nodes (or concepts) and the links that join
them to form a category (see Figure 8.3 ).
275
inguistic relativity
| (or the Whorfi an hypothesis
the theory that the
| language we use determines how we understand the world.
276
mental set
that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a routine solution
to what is actually a new type of problem
277
representativeness heuristic:
: making judgments of
| likelihood based on how well an example represents a specifi c category
278
availability heuristic
entails estimating the frequency
of an event based on how easily examples of it come
to mind.
279
anchoring eff ect
occurs when an individual
attempts to solve a problem involving numbers and uses
previous knowledge to keep (i.e., anchor ) the response within
a limited range.use of relevant numbers to solve problem
280
belief perseverance,
when an individual believes he or she
has the solution to the problem or the correct answer for a question
and accepts
only evidence that will confi rm those beliefs
281
confi rmation
| bias o
occurs when an individual searches for only evidence that
will confi rm his or her beliefs instead of evidence that might
disconfi rm them
282
Based on ________ , people judge something as more
| likely if it strongly represents a specifi c category.
representativeness
283
aphasia
a language disorder caused by damage to the brain
| structures that support using and understanding language.
284
Broca’s area
This region of the left frontal lobe that controls our ability
to articulate speech sounds that compose words is now known
as. failure to use and understand
285
Wernicke’s area
is the area of the
| brain most associated with fi nding the meaning of words. failure to understand meaning of words
286
Phonemes
are the most basic of units of speech sounds
287
Morphemes
are the smallest meaningful units of a language
288
Semantics
is the study of how people come to understand
| meaning from words.
289
syntax
the rules
for combining words and morphemes into meaningful phrases
and sentenc
290
pragmatics
is the study of nonlinguistic elements of language
| use.
291
fl outing
disobeying rules of language obviously to imply things
292
crossfostered
, meaning that she was raised as a member of a family
| that was not of the same species.
293
FOXP2
can be mutated and causes them to be unable to process language poorly
294
Which nonhuman species has had the greatest success
| at learning a human language?
Bonobo chimpanzees
295
what does it mean to be statistically significant
The means of the groups are further apart than what you would expect to see based on chance alone, if they are statistically significant.
296
what is the law of common fate
The Gestalt law of common fate states that humans perceive visual elements that move in the same speed and/or direction as parts of a single stimulus.
297
Jared, a man in his mid 60’s suffered a small stroke. Later, he returns to normal function but has difficulty perceiving faces. What part of Jared’s brain was likely damaged?
Fusiform face area
298
EEG
EEG has excellent temporal resolution and it can tell us about the status of the brain (e.g., awake or asleep).
299
testosterone
Testosterone appears to be involved with social aggression and dominance rather than with non-social forms of aggression such as hunting or responding to attacks.
300
TMS
TMS involves targeting a magnetic field to a very specific region of the brain in order to stimulate that part of the brain.
301
gustatory cortex.
food
302
carl rogers and maslow
Carl Rogers developed a new perspective for psychology called Humanism which focuses on the unique aspects of each individual, their freedom to act, his or her rational thought, and the belief that humans are fundamentally different from other animals. Both Rogers and Maslow believed that al humans are motivated to engage in personal growth and to fulfill their potential.
303
monoamines vs non
Dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin are all monoamines, while glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine are not. while others are not
304
chaining
Chaining involves linking together two or more shaped behaviours into a more complex action or sequence of actions.
305
Hebb rule
who proposed that when a weak connection between neurons is stimulated at the same time as a strong connection, the weak connection becomes strengthened.
306
alber bandura
Albert Bandura and colleagues conducted a series of studies, in which groups of children watched an adult or cartoon character attach a “Bobo” doll, while another group of children watched adults who did not attack the doll. Children who watched adults attack the doll did likewise when given the opportunity. The other group of children did not attack the doll.
307
what parts contribute to not moving
The pons sends excitatory messages through the thalamus during wakefulness. During sleep however, the pons sends inhibitory signals to the spinal cord to prevent movement.
308
Thorndike
proposed the law of effect, which is the idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again in the same situation whereas those that are not followed by satisfaction become less like
309
eeg is good why
e correct answer is that distinct brain waves have been identified for stimuli detecting and analysis of language. Thus, EEG could be an additional method to help assess disorders of consciousness.
310
drawback of fmri
The temporal resolution of fMRI is not as good as ERP or MEG.
311
right frontal lobes
ty in the right frontal lobes is particularly sensitive to context as this region is known to be critical for the retrieval of memories.
