MT2 Flashcards

Question

non associative learning

Answer 1

- habituation - sensitization - perceptual learning

Answer 2

- classical conditioning - instrumental conditioning

Answer 3

- habituation: decreasing responses to frequent but innocuous stimulus - sensitization: increasing responses to a noxious/ arousing stimulus - perceptual learning: becoming better at processing/ recognizing frequent stimulus

Answer 4

decrease in strength or occurrence of behavior due to repeated exposure to stimulus that produces behavior - socializing cats or dogs to a neighbor - orienting response in infants - some habituate faster than others - dr. Palombo’s acoustic startle response

Answer 5

- ubiquitous in animal kingdom - across organisms, with striking similarities between organisms - weaker stimulus= more habituation: strong stimulus, less habituation develops - ensure weak/ useless stimuli are ignored, but painful/ important stimuli gain more attention

Answer 6

novel/ arousing stimulus can temporarily recover responses to habituating stimulus. fades quickly

Answer 7

responses only decrease to habituating stimulus

Answer 8

when repeated stimulus tops, behavior gradually returns to normal. time for recovery depends on several factors

Answer 9

- increasing response to noxious/ arousing stimulus characteristics - also ubiquitous- found throughout animal kingdom - also shows set of common characteristics - spontaneous recover - short and long term focus - noxious (painful) stimuli work better than weak - more generalization, less stimulus specificity - can develop with just a single stimulus

Answer 10

- repeated experiences with set of stimuli improve ability to distinguish those stimuli - simply encountering a stimulus makes it increasingly easier to tell it apart from other stimuli - coke vs. pepsi, mcdonalds versus wendys, etc - language! subtly diff sounds with very diff meanings

Answer 11

- with feedback, we can learnt o tell even subtle diffs in stimuli - with practice and feedback humans and other animals can learn to make such fine distinctions - exposure can lead to priming- you like familiar stimuli better

Answer 12

- form of learning in which animal acquires expectation that a given stimulus predicts. specific upcoming event - X predicts Y

Answer 13

- appetitive: conditioning in which US is desirable event (such as food delivery) :) - aversive: conditioning in which US is disagreeable event (such as shock or air puff to eye) :(

Answer 14

extinction reducing learned response se to stimulus by ceasing to pair stimulus with another (break relationship with tone and food)

Answer 15

- compound: conditioning in which two or more cues are present together, usually simultaneously, forming compound CS - overshadowing: effect seen in compound conditioning when more salient cue within compound acquires more association strength than does the less salient cue and is this more strongly associated with US

Answer 16

- process whereby organisms learn to make or to refrain from making certain responses in order to obtain or avoid certain outcomes - how we learn about consequences of our actions

Answer 17

cat accidentally discovers that by a certain movement they get free from the box and feels rewarded (after many trials)

Answer 18

in classical, animal experiences an outcome (unconditioned stimulus) regardless of whether them preform conditioned response in operant, outcome depends on whether organism performs responses

Answer 19

skinner devised cage- now commonly called skinner box- with trough in one wall through which food could be delivered automatically

Answer 20

1. positive reinforcement: parents gives son candy for completing homework 2. negative reinforcement: parents tells son if he does hw quickly, eh doesn’t have to take out garbage 3. positive punishment: parents gives son extra chores because he hit his brother (parent hopes this will decrease frequency of hitting) 4. negative punishment: parents takes son’s iPad away because he did not listen

Answer 21

argued punishment is not as effective - punishment leads to more variable behavior - punishment can backfire because you are giving situation more attention - punishments are often delayed, can be confusing

Answer 22

- procedural memories are skill memories, i.e., memories for actions - perform procedures without being consciously aware of how to do them - people who cannot form new declarative memories can still learn new skills - skill learning doesn’t fit neatly into associate or non-associative learning

Answer 23

- very important for non-declarative memory, especially fear conditioning - note that classic conditioning doesn’t typically rely on hippocampus but there are certain variants of classical conditioning that do involve hippocampus - conditioning with a delay

Answer 24

noradrenaline (NE) level dramatically drop - this allows brain to process emotional memories, without same intensity (taking away emotional charge) - One hypothesis situate in PTSD, process is altered: NE doesn’t decrease as much during REM, leaving in charge of emotional memories. Manifests as intrusive memories and nightmares

Answer 25

- Fear condition has been used as model for PTSD --> According to this, neutral stimuli become associated with strong fear responses - Unconditioned stimulus: vicious dog bite, naturally evoking fear - Conditioned stimulus: sight of that dog (previous natural stimulus) - After trauma: person now fears dog (conditioned response: CR) - CS-US linkages may be stronger in those with PTSD

Answer 26

Person relives memory, reinforcing CS-US connection. Whats more, new thoughts get linked to memory, creating more CS stimuli. This makes memory stronger

Answer 27

- Based on non-human animal work, where focus is on implicit (non- declarative) memory - don’t provide full understanding of PTSD in humans, which also involves declarative, episodic memory - They don’t account for other memory differences (e.g., reduced memory for neutral material)

Answer 28

Maladaptive pattern of substance use that leads to clinically significant impairment or distress - Addictive substances target diff neurotransmitter systems in brain

Answer 29

states that one role of dopamine is to signal how much the animal wants particle outcome— that is, how motivated animal is to work for it - Animals with depleted dopamine will not lever press food but will consume if its freely available (still like food) - Animals with increase dopamine will level press more. This is operant conditioning - S (LEVER), R (ACT OF LEVER PRESSING), O (THE FOOD) - Drug that affect dopamine system change manner of responding R

Answer 30

- In rats with small dose before larger dose in same location —> only 32% overdose - In rats with small dose before larger odes in different loc —> 64% overdose - In first time dose rats, large heroin dose —> 96% fatal overdose Implications - Risk of overdose is higher when drug is taken in novel environment - This is because novel environment lacks environmental cues to initiate compensatory responses

Answer 31

- Loss of dopamine input to basal ganglia from brainstem, leading to profound movement impairments - Learning is also affected, especially procedural learning and operant or instrumental conditioning

Answer 32

H.M’s difficulty with remembering events and facts from his life, in juxtaposition to his intact ability to carry on a conversation, hold onto a phone number, inspired many models of how memory works

Answer 33

- STM: temporary memory that is maintained through active rehearsal - e.g., remembering a phone number - LTM: permanent or near-permanent storage of memory that lasts beyond a period of conscious attention

Answer 34

1. incoming information flows first into sensory memory: brief, transient sensations of what you have just perceived when you have seen, heard, touched, smelled, or tasted something 2. Information enters short-term memory- is then retained or lost via rehearsal 3. Then enters long term memory via various control processes - we can then pull info from LTM into STM (bi-directional relationship)

Answer 35

- There are lots of ways in which short and long term memory differ - if given a list of words then asked to recall them, we are most probable to remember last words of the list (more recent words) - There are lot of ways in which these systems interact - Chunking: breaking information into smaller bits —> essential tool for controlling STM and using it effectively to temporarily store as much info as possible

Answer 36

- Issues with term short term memory - Term STM was used to refer to temporary storage system by many (such as keeping a phone number in mind) - Issues with referring to working memory as a place - Historically, STM was a storage place- loading duck, before info made its way into another place for LTM (place based model) - Place is too simplistic - In contrast, state based models would argue there is only one place for memory, although memories can be in various states we activate (much like parts of a city lighting up - Emphasis on rehearsal - The way we encode info is important for predicting what survive in LTM - Suggest: rehearsal si not nil way info gets into LTM

Answer 37

- Recency effect: items you have access to that are still in short term memory (driven by LTM) - Primacy effect: after the lat words, you’ll remember the first words, THEN the middle words (driven by STM) --> You get to rehearse the first words into LTM - If you insert a delay after being shown a list of words, you abolish the recency effect because that memory is no longer lingering in STM —> delay has to be a distractor task (e.g., ask them to do a math task)

Answer 38

Alan baddeley (1986): suggested working memory is more appropriate to reflect fact we not only hold info in mind, but we often manipulate it - Working: active and temporary representation of info that is maintained for short term, available for manipulation - Cognitive: manipulation and application of working memory for planning, task switching, attention, stimulus selection, and inhibition of inappropriate reflexive behaviours; also known as executive control or executive function

Answer 39

Proposed influential model of working memory that includes two independent STM buggers (Visuospatial sketchpad, phonological loop)

Answer 40

- Visuospatial sketchpad: component of baddeley’s model of working memory that maintains visual and spatial images - Phonological loop: component that maintains auditory memories by internal (subvocal) speech rehearsal - Central executive: monitors and manipulates both of these working memory buffers, providing cognitive control of working memory - Adding to and deleting form items in buggers - Selecting among items in order to guide behaviours - Retrieving information from LTM - Transferrin info from visuospatial and phonological to LTM

Answer 41

Pre frontal cortex (PFC), most entire section of frontal lobes, as being critical for woking memory and executive control - In humans, PFC encompasses approx 1/3 of cerebral cortex - Cats and many other normals have frontal lobes that occupy less than 4% of their cerebral cortex

Answer 42

- Frontal lobe damage is a loss of ability to plan and organize - Dysexective syndrome: disrupted ability to think and plan - Frontal lobe damage can vary, and pattern of symptoms depends on location and extent of damage - Caregivers may remark their loves ones show change in personality and behaviours - Gambling - Dishonesty

Answer 43

Frontal lobe damage can be caused by tutors, surgery, strokes, or blunt force trauma (coupe and counter-coup: bouncing of brain front to back - e.g., Professional football players who headbutt other players and experience rapid deceleration

Answer 44

People with damage to frontal lobes show deficits on many working memory and cognitive control tasks - impaired at tasks that tap STM span, tasks that require planning, and task switching

Answer 45

no problem learning initial rule, but later show preservation, which means they fail to learn new rule and persist using old rule despite repeated indication that old rule is not longer correct

Answer 46

- most infants learned to kick to move a colourful mobile (instrumental conditioning) - If crib liner with new pattern was used, babies don’t kick (context-dependent learning) - Human and rat infants learn eye-blind conditioning (classical conditioning)

Answer 47

- Declarative memory is difficult to study in young children because they don’t have verbal skills to declare what they remember - Declarative memory studies are conducted in children who are old enough o speak

Answer 48

forming close bond with first individual seen after birth - Common in birds, but also occurs in other species - Bond forms best immediately after birth’ after this critical period, harder to form

Answer 49

Some learning abilities are only available or more readily available early in life, during so-called sensitive period ro critical period, after which some forms of learning may become difficult or impossible

Answer 50

younger children perform better when exposed to enriched or healthier environments, which can alleviate certain impairments. Expose should occur earlier in life to b most effective

Answer 51

Evidence suggest that language must be learned before approx. 12 yrs of age to reach true fluency - Skills for phonetic discrimination can diminish during dev. For sound distinctions not utilized in languages to which person is exposed - Individuals become perceptual learning experts for their language - Although the is subject debate, 2nd lang. acquisition is generally believed to be easier during childhood

Answer 52

classical conditioning begins to decline at ages 40-50, taking potentially twice as long in older adults compared to young adults - Skills learning decreases rapidly after age 60

Answer 53

- Semantic and episodic mem. Exhibit in uneven decline - Ability to retain and retrieve older episodic and semantic memories shows less decline

Answer 54

- Synaptic changes: new semantic connections, especially in frontal cortex through adolescence, pruning throughout early adulthood - Myelination: axons are wrapped in myelin, improving speed and fidelity of communication between brain areas; starts after birth, not complete until around 18 yrs, especially in frontal cortex - Modulation: dramatic increase ind dopamine inputs during adolescence

Answer 55

form of progressive cognitive decline from accumulating brains deterioration - AD accounts for 60-80% of all dementia cases - AF was the 9th leading cause of death in all Canadians in 2022 according to stats can.

Answer 56

- Episodic memory loss (recent visitors) —> semantic memory loss (familiar names, locations) —> conditioning and skill learning - In late stage AD, often lack of awareness and daily living skills

Answer 57

- Amyloid plaque= deposits of beta-amyloid (abnormal byproduct of amyloid precursor protein, kills adjacent neutrons), plaques evenly distributed across cortex - Neurofibrillary tangles= collapse protein scaffolding within neutrons - Early in AD, accumulate in hippocampus and MTL - Hippocamapal shrinkage= early AD warning sign

Answer 58

- Ishcemic: blood clot in artery obstructs blood flow. Neutrons lose oxygen and glucose supply (common) - Hemorrhagic: blood vessel ruptures. Neutrons receive excess oxygen and other substances, which can lead to neutron death (less common)

Answer 59

- Numbness, weakness in face, arm, leg (one side of body) - Sudden, severe headache - Blurred vision - Confusion, difficulty speaking - Dizziness, loss of balance/ coordination - Loss of cognitive functioning, including learning and memory

Answer 60

Objective of study: studying phenomenon of context dependent memory in natural environments Experiment 1 - Hypothesis: participants who learn and recall ins ame environment will do better than those who learn in an environment and recall in different one - Results: effect of environment of recall on participants’ recall ability depended on environment off original learning - All good as long as they’re learning and remembering in the same place - Differences: could be due to certain conditions including disruption and others not Experiment 2 - Tested both differential rehearsal and disruption hypotheses - Compared standard DD condition with modified one - Modified condition: subjects had to dive for 4 minutes between presentation and test - Results: scores in E2 were lower than the comparable DD condition in experiment 1 - Score different leis in the opposite direction to that predicted by disruption hypothesis - There was background noise for other diving groups - Volunteers were unfamiliar with testing situations and experimental procedures Conclusion - Effect of environment of recall on performance depends on environment of learning - Recall is better when it happens in same environment where learning happened - This effect is unlikely to be due to disruption, supporting context dependent hypothesis

Answer 61

Differences between replication and OG - Club divers (more experienced) vs. Undergraduate divers - CELEX word corps (more difficult words) - Heated indoor pool vs. Open water - Max depth of 1.8m during wet condition vs. 7m depth - Switched locos between learning and recall vs. No switching loss - All in one day with 1.5 hrs vs. Tested across 4 days Results - main effect of learning environment (dry> wet) - No main effect of recall environment (dry=wet - Crucially, unlike original, no interaction between two (effect of recall environment did not differ between dry learning and wet learning)