MT Flashcards
What is the definition of Philosophy?
Philosophy is the pursuit to apply correct knowledge.
Derived from ‘Philia’ (Love) and ‘Sophia’ (Wisdom), meaning Love of Wisdom.
What are the four branches of Philosophy?
- Metaphysics
- Epistemology
- Logic
- Ethics
Some scholars propose a fifth branch, but only four are discussed here.
What does Metaphysics deal with?
Concepts and questions regarding the notion of God, Soul, and freedom.
It examines what is beyond the physical or sensible experience.
Define Epistemology.
The study of knowledge, including how knowledge is acquired and its extent.
‘Episteme’ means knowledge and ‘logos’ means study.
What is the focus of Logic in philosophy?
To distinguish sound reasoning from unsound reasoning.
‘Logos’ translates to word or study.
What is Ethics concerned with?
Questions of how human persons ought to act and the search for a definition of right conduct and the good life.
‘Ethos’ refers to custom, character, or habit.
What is Philosophical Reflection?
The act of giving time to think about the meaning and purpose of life.
It involves deeper engagement with one’s experiences.
Differentiate between Primary and Secondary Reflection.
- Primary Reflection: Fragmented, selfish thinking that analyzes past events.
- Secondary Reflection: Integrates experiences into a coherent whole, representing genuine thinking.
What skills are necessary for doing philosophy?
- Philosophical Reflection
- Construction and evaluation of argument
These skills enable deeper understanding and systematic expression of ideas.
How can we determine the wrongness of a human action?
- If it does not conform to moral standards
- If it affects the well-being of others
- If it violates another person’s freedom.
How can we determine the rightness of a human action?
- If it conforms to moral standards
- If it generates ultimate goodness for the majority
- If it leads to happiness.
What is Critical Thinking?
The analysis of a situation or careful deliberation of circumstances or socio-cultural dynamics.
Define Ethical Thinking.
A type of thinking that deliberates on social issues and acts for a socially just and humane society.
What is the Greek origin of the word Ethics?
Ethos, meaning habit.
What is the distinction between Ethics and Morality?
- Ethics: Theory of right action and the greater good.
- Morality: Practice of rightness or wrongness of human actions.
What are the types of Ethics?
- Normative Ethics
- Metaethics
- Applied Ethics.
What is Normative Ethics?
Prescriptive study that seeks to set norms regulating right and wrong conduct.
What does Metaethics question?
The meanings of various ethical terms and the nature of ethical principles.
What is Applied Ethics?
Attempts to apply ethical theories to specific instances, such as in business or medicine.
What is the relationship between morality and living a good life?
Morality provides rules of conduct for living a life of virtue.
What is the descriptive sense of morality?
Codes of conduct put forward by society or accepted by individuals for their behavior.
What are the implications of Descriptive Ethics?
- No universal morality exists
- Rules apply only within specific groups
- Presupposes a universal moral principle
- Presupposes a moral agent.
What distinguishes Moral Standards from Non-moral Standards?
- Moral Standards: Justified by reason.
- Non-moral Standards: Concerned with preferences, not moral actions.
What is a Moral Dilemma?
A situation where an individual is torn between conflicting moral requirements.
What are the types of Moral Dilemmas?
- Epistemic and Ontological Conflict
- Self-imposed & World-Imposed Dilemma
- Single-agent and multi-persons Dilemma
- General and Role-related Obligations.
What is the minimum requirement for a moral act?
Freedom and Responsibility.
What is Kant’s Categorical Imperative?
A corrective measure to weigh and judge one’s actions as morally desirable or deplorable.
What is Culture?
The collective experience and way of life of people, including external and internal elements.
How does Western Culture differ from African Culture?
- Western Culture: Individualistic
- African Culture: Collectivistic.
What does Edward Said’s concept of representation imply?
It shapes knowledge about other cultures through power dynamics.
What are the four forms of capital according to Pierre Bourdieu?
- Economical Capital
- Cultural Capital
- Social Capital
- Symbolic Capital.
What is the formula for practice in Bourdieu’s theory?
Practice is the result of [(Habitus)(Capital)] + Field.
What does Bourdieu’s concept of Habitus refer to?
Subjective dispositions and schemes of perception present in all social agents.
What is the significance of the term Capital in Bourdieu’s social theory?
It refers to the assets a social agent possesses, determining their position in the social hierarchy.
What are the three types of capital according to Bourdieu?
- Social Capital
- Symbolic Capital
- Cultural Capital
Each type of capital plays a crucial role in determining an individual’s position within social hierarchies.
What is the formula for practice in Bourdieu’s theory?
Practice is the result of [(Habitus)(Capital)] + Field
This indicates how individual practices are shaped by their social context and the resources they possess.
What does ‘doxa’ refer to in Bourdieu’s theory?
Doxa refers to the perfect correspondence between habitus and field.
It reflects how certain norms and beliefs are taken for granted in society.
What is symbolic violence as defined by Bourdieu?
Symbolic violence is the imposition of an arbitrary culture by an arbitrary power.
This concept highlights how dominant cultural norms are maintained through social practices.
What is the difference between Juridical Power and Productive Power according to Foucault?
- Juridical Power = Negative Power
- Productive Power = Positive mechanism that forms subjects
Juridical Power is exercised by the state, while Productive Power creates pleasure and induces compliance.
What is Governmentality in Foucault’s theory?
Governmentality is the internalization of power through freedom.
Individuals regulate and discipline themselves after internalizing societal norms.
What is the ‘New Normal’ in the context of the pandemic?
A new normative way to do things imposed often with an element of force.
Once internalized, individuals self-discipline to maintain the new norms.
What does Ethical Relativism claim about moral values?
Ethical Relativism holds that moral values are relative to individuals or societies.
There is no objective right or wrong according to this perspective.
What are the two forms of Ethical Relativism?
- Personal or Individual Ethical Relativism
- Social or Cultural Ethical Relativism
Each form addresses the basis of moral judgments differently.
What is the main criticism of Ethical Relativism?
It is self-contradictory and removes possibilities of consensus.
Ethical Relativism undermines the foundation for universal moral standards.
Who is considered the most important virtue ethicist?
Aristotle
His contributions to virtue ethics have influenced moral philosophy significantly.
What does ‘Eudaimonia’ mean in Aristotelian ethics?
Eudaimonia is often translated as ‘happiness’ or ‘flourishing’.
It represents the ultimate goal of human life according to Aristotle.
What are the key concepts of Aristotelian Virtue Ethics?
- Ergon (function)
- Eudaimonia (Flourishing)
- Arete (Excellence or Virtue)
- Phronesis (practical or moral wisdom)
These concepts are central to understanding human behavior and ethics in Aristotelian philosophy.
What is Arete in the context of virtue ethics?
Arete is translated as ‘excellence’ or ‘virtue’.
It signifies character traits that enable individuals to evaluate things appropriately.
What role does friendship play in achieving Eudaimonia according to Aristotle?
Friendship based on virtue is essential for achieving Eudaimonia.
It is valued higher than honor and justice because it fosters genuine connection.
Fill in the blank: Ethical Relativism holds that ethical or moral values/beliefs are ______ to the various individuals or societies that hold them.
relative
This perspective challenges the existence of universal moral truths.
True or False: According to Bourdieu, domination in the social world is purely material.
False
Bourdieu argues that domination is largely symbolic and maintained through cultural practices.
What is the primary focus of Foucault’s theory?
Power and how it operates to produce particular kinds of subjects.
He analyzes the dynamics of power in social contexts.
What is the significance of happiness in Aristotelian ethics?
Happiness is the only truly good thing, sought for its own sake.
It is linked to fulfilling one’s potential and living virtuously.
What does Aristotle argue about the function of human beings?
The function of human beings consists in the activity of the rational part of the soul in accordance with virtue.
This indicates that rationality and virtue are central to human existence.
What is the standard translation of ‘excellence’?
Virtue
The original term refers to qualities like honesty and generosity.
How is virtue defined in relation to character traits?
Virtue is not just a tendency to behave in a certain way; it is a more general disposition that enables appropriate evaluation and emotions.
What is the significance of virtue in achieving eudaimonia?
Virtue enables one to make right choices from the point of view of eudaimonia (flourishing life).
What is phronesis?
Phronesis is practical wisdom that the virtuous morally mature adult possesses, which children and adolescents lack.
What distinguishes adults from children in moral decision-making?
Adults are culpable for thoughtless or reckless actions, while children are often ignorant of what is beneficial or harmful.
What criteria can be used to judge acts leading to happiness?
Natural criteria based on what makes human beings happy (eudaimonia) and what causes suffering.
What causes failure in achieving happiness according to the text?
Failure occurs when the soul is not in balance, leading to wrong desires and choices.
What are the best things to strive for in life?
Truth, goodness, and beauty.
What is the Aristotelian Mean?
The virtuous conduct is a mean between two extremes of excess and deficiency.
How is courage defined in terms of the Aristotelian Mean?
Courage is the mean regarding fear, between rashness (deficiency) and cowardice (excess).
What does ‘mean is relative to ourselves’ imply?
One person’s mean may be another person’s extreme, based on individual differences.
What is a criticism against virtue ethics?
Virtue ethics does not provide fundamental principles for decision-making.
What is the problem of cultural relativism in virtue ethics?
Different cultures embody different virtues, making what is virtuous relative to culture.
What are the two kinds of virtues?
Intellectual Virtues and Moral Virtues.
What is theoretical intelligence (nous)?
The faculty that apprehends fundamental principles and truths, unique to humans and gods.
What is practical wisdom?
The ability to make right judgments on practical issues, which can be learned.
How is a moral virtue defined?
The ability to be reasonable in actions, desires, and emotions.
What is the outcome of habit in relation to moral virtues?
Moral virtue is the outcome of habit and is not implanted by nature.
What are the two kinds of good life mentioned?
- Life devoted to study and thinking
- Active life in society
What is St. Thomas Aquinas’ view on moral philosophy?
Aquinas follows Aristotle’s ethics, emphasizing living a life expressing reason.
What is the human person according to Aquinas?
A teleological being created by God with the purpose of achieving perfect happiness.
Why is the human species considered a higher being?
Due to their innate rational capacities of thinking and willing.
What is the Natural Law?
God’s imprint on nature that guides proper action and moral inclination.
What does eternal law refer to?
God’s wisdom that directs creatures towards their proper ends.
What is the fulfillment of the Natural Law for humans?
Acting properly as rational and moral beings in accordance with God’s design.
What are the three moral obligations according to Aquinas?
- Self-preservation
- Procreation
- Just-dealings with others
What conditions must be met for an act to be morally good?
- The action is good in itself
- Aims at a good end
- Done in an appropriate circumstance
What is the principle of double effect?
An act may have good and bad effects but can be permissible if certain conditions are met.
What is happiness as man’s ultimate end according to Aquinas?
The good is the object of desire that brings completeness and is ultimately found in knowing and loving God.
What is beatific vision?
The ultimate happiness found in union with God, beyond physical existence.
How does grace relate to attaining happiness?
Grace is necessary to perfect human nature and enables following God’s law.
What is philosophy defined as?
The love of wisdom, involving the pursuit of applying correct knowledge.
What are the four branches of philosophy?
- Metaphysics
- Epistemology
- Logic
- Ethics
What is primary reflection?
Thinking that is fragmented, calculating, and selfish, failing to grasp the whole of life.
What is secondary reflection?
Integrative thinking that forms a coherent whole and is genuinely unselfish.
How can we determine the wrongness of a human action?
If it does not conform to moral standards or affects the well-being of others.
What is required for an action to be considered right?
Conformity to moral standards and generating ultimate goodness for the majority.
Why is it essential to be ethical or moral?
As social beings, we are involved in the ‘becoming’ of our world.
What affects the well-being of others?
The practice of freedom that violates another person’s freedom.
How can we determine the rightness of a human action?
If it conforms to moral standards and ethical principles learned implicitly or explicitly.
What is happiness in the context of moral actions?
An experience that may indicate the rightness of an action.
What is the ultimate goodness for the majority?
A criterion for determining the rightness of an action.
Why do we need to be ethical or moral?
We are individuals among other individuals, involved in the development of our social life.
What is critical thinking?
The analysis of the situation or careful deliberation of circumstances or socio-cultural dynamics.
What is ethical thinking?
A type of thinking that deliberates on social issues and acts on them for a socially just society.
What does the Greek word ‘ethos’ mean?
Habit.
What is ethics a branch of?
Philosophy concerned with how persons ought to act.
What is the end or telos of human acts according to the Greeks?
The acquisition of the good life through virtue and the pursuit of happiness.
How do the Hebrews define ethics?
As ideals of righteousness before God and love of God and neighbors.
What denotes ethics?
The theory of right action and the greater good.
What does morality indicate?
The practice of rightness or wrongness of human actions.
What is normative ethics?
The study that seeks to set norms regulating right and wrong conduct.
What is metaethics?
The study questioning the meanings of ethical terms and the nature of ethical principles.
What is applied ethics?
The branch that applies ethical theories to specific instances like business or medicine.
Fill in the blank: Morality is about _______.
rules of conduct with which individuals seek counsel to live a life of virtue.
What is the descriptive sense of morality?
Codes of conduct accepted by a society or individual.
What does the normative sense of morality establish?
Universal moral principles.
What is a moral dilemma?
A situation where an individual is torn between conflicting moral requirements.
What are the types of moral dilemmas?
Epistemic and Ontological Conflict
Self-imposed & World-Imposed Dilemma
Single-agent and Multi-persons Dilemma
General and Role-related Obligations
What is the minimum requirement for a moral act?
Freedom and responsibility.
What does Kant’s Categorical Imperative provide?
A measure to weigh and judge actions as morally desirable or deplorable.
What is culture understood as?
What people do and how they do things.
What does the ‘Bayanihan system’ represent in Filipino culture?
A cultural tradition of communal unity and cooperation.
What is the difference between Western and African cultures?
Western culture is individualistic, while African culture is collectivistic.
What is Edward Said known for?
His work ‘Orientalism’ which critiques Western representations of non-Western cultures.
What mechanism shapes knowledge about other people according to Edward Said?
Representation.
What is Pierre Bourdieu’s concept of ‘habitus’?
Subjective dispositions and schemes of perception present in social agents.
What does Bourdieu mean by ‘capital’?
Assets possessed by a social agent that determine their position in social hierarchy.
What is symbolic violence according to Bourdieu?
The imposition of an arbitrary culture by an arbitrary power.
What are the two conceptions of power described by Foucault?
Juridical Power
Productive Power
What is the Panopticon a metaphor for?
The internalization of domination and self-regulation.
What is disciplinary power?
Disciplinary power is when the subject conforms because it believes that this is how they are expected to behave.
Examples include norms such as not being noisy in church or listening to the teacher in class.
What is the Panopticon?
The Panopticon is a design by Jeremy Bentham where the guard watches over prisoners, causing them to behave accordingly even without direct supervision.
This concept illustrates internalized domination in various settings like prisons, hospitals, and schools.
What does ‘the new normal’ refer to?
The new normal refers to a new normative way to do things, especially during the pandemic, often imposed through restrictive power.
It becomes normative once individuals internalize it as something that brings safety.
Define ethical relativism.
Ethical relativism holds that ethical or moral values/beliefs are relative to the various individuals or societies that hold them.
This means there is no objective right and wrong.
What are the two forms of ethical relativism?
- Personal or Individual Ethical Relativism
- Social or Cultural Ethical Relativism
What is personal or individual ethical relativism?
It is the view that ethical judgments and beliefs are expressions of individual moral outlook and attitudes.
There is no objective standard of right and wrong according to individual ethical relativists.
What example illustrates personal ethical relativism?
The Inuit practice of senicide, where elderly individuals are left on ice to die, exemplifies personal ethical relativism.
An individual relativist would argue outsiders have no right to judge this practice.
What are three possible reasons that support ethical relativism?
- Diversity of Moral Values
- Moral Uncertainty
- Situational Differences
What is one criticism against ethical relativism?
It is self-contradictory as it creates a new form of normative ethics by placing the criteria of right and wrong in the hands of the moral agent.
Who is considered the most important virtue ethicist?
Aristotle (384 BC - 322 BC)
What are the three types of souls according to Plato?
- Intellectual soul - virtue is wisdom
- Will-soul - virtue is courage
- Desire-soul - virtue is moderation
What is eudaimonia?
Eudaimonia is commonly translated as happiness or flourishing and is associated with living a virtuous life.
It is considered a moralized concept of happiness.
What is the role of virtue in eudaimonia?
Virtue is necessary but not sufficient for achieving eudaimonia; external goods are also needed.
External goods include health, wealth, friends, and a functional society.
What is the Aristotelian mean?
The Aristotelian mean is the virtuous conduct that lies between two extremes of excess and deficiency.
What is phronesis?
Phronesis is practical or moral wisdom that the virtuous morally mature adult possesses, distinguishing them from children and adolescents.
Adults are expected to make better moral choices based on their experiences.
What is the relationship between happiness and friendship in Aristotle’s view?
Friendship is one of the most important virtues for achieving eudaimonia, especially friendships based on virtue.
These friendships are long-lasting and require effort to maintain.
What is a criticism against virtue ethics?
Virtue ethics does not provide fundamental principles for decision-making.
Critics argue that principles and logic are not sufficient to determine actions.
What is the significance of the term ‘Arete’?
Arete is translated as virtue or excellence, representing a character trait that enables one to evaluate and make right choices toward eudaimonia.
How does Aristotle define the function of a human being (Ergon)?
The function of a human being is the activity of the rational part of the soul in accordance with virtue.
What does Aristotle suggest about people with weaker wills?
They may find it a mean to flee in battle
The extremes being to get slaughtered or commit suicide.
What is a criticism against virtue ethics?
It does not provide fundamental principles for decision-making
It is not realistic to expect such principles.
What is the problem of cultural relativism in virtue ethics?
Different cultures have different virtues, making what is virtuous relative
This can render ethical guidance unhelpful.
What are the two kinds of virtues in virtue ethics?
- Intellectual Virtues
- Moral Virtues
What is theoretical intelligence (nous)?
It is the human faculty that apprehends fundamental principles directly
This is unique to humans and gods and cannot be learned.
What is practical wisdom?
The ability to make right judgments on practical issues
It can be learned and is more prevalent in older individuals.
How is a moral virtue defined?
The ability to be reasonable in actions, desires, and emotions
An example is courage, which is the mean between cowardice and foolhardiness.
What does Aristotle mean by virtue as a mean?
A virtue is the mean between two extremes: a vice of deficiency and a vice of excess
For courage, cowardice is deficiency and foolhardiness is excess.
What are the two kinds of good life according to Aristotle?
- Life in the guidance of reason
- Active life in society
What is St. Thomas Aquinas’ view on human nature?
Man is created by God with intellect and will, aiming for perfect happiness through union with God
This view contrasts with Aristotle’s notion of Eudaimonia.
Why does Aquinas consider humans a higher being?
Because of their innate rational capacities, including thinking and willing
This distinguishes humans from animals, who act by instinct.
What is the Natural Law according to Aquinas?
God’s imprint on nature and principles of proper action
It is proven by natural inclinations.
What is the Eternal Law?
God’s wisdom that directs the movements and actions of creatures toward their proper end
For humans, it involves practicing freedom and understanding God’s commands.
What is the fulfillment of Natural Law for humans?
Acting and functioning properly as rational and moral beings
This aligns with God’s design and plan.
What are the three moral obligations according to Aquinas?
- Self-preservation
- Procreation
- Just dealings with others
What conditions must be met for an act to be morally good?
- The action is good in itself
- The action aims at a good end
- The action is done in appropriate circumstances
What is the Principle of Double Effect?
An act with good and bad effects is permissible if:
* The act in itself is good
* The agent does not intend the bad effect
* The bad effect is not the means to the good effect
* The goodness of the good effect outweighs the bad effect
What is happiness according to Aquinas?
The ultimate end that every human action aims at, defined as the object of desire
Happiness reflects completeness and is found in knowing and loving God.
What is the Beatific Vision?
The perfect union with God, which is the ultimate source of happiness
It cannot be achieved solely through human efforts.
How can humans attain happiness according to Aquinas?
Through the grace of God, which perfects human nature and enables moral action
Grace is necessary to overcome sin and achieve union with God.
