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HUBS > Movement > Flashcards

Movement Flashcards

1
Q

Functions of the skeletal system (5)

A
  • support
  • movement
  • protection
  • storage
  • RBC formation
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2
Q

Two types of bone tissue

A
  • compact

- cancellous

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3
Q

Where is compact bone found?

A

Where strength and load bearing is needed

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4
Q

Where is cancellous bone found?

A

Where shock absorption is required.

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5
Q

Bone classes

A

Long bones
Short bones
Flat bones
Irregular bones

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6
Q

Describe long bones

A
  • longer than they are wide
  • shaft or diaphysis
  • extremities or epiphyses
  • function as levers for movement
  • thicker compact bone in diaphysis
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7
Q

Function of long bone

A
  • function as levers for movement
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8
Q

Describe short bones

A

Near equal in with and length

  • weightbearing/shock absorption
  • mostly cancellous bone.
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9
Q

Function of short bones

A
  • Weightbearing/shock absorption.
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10
Q

Describe flat bones

A
  • thin plates of compact bone - some cancellous (eg ridges for muscle attachment)
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11
Q

Function of flat bones

A
  • Protection - cranial bones

- muscle attachment - scapula

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12
Q

Describe irregular bones

A

Variable shape and function

eg vertebrae

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13
Q

2 Divisions of the skeleton

A
  1. Axial

2. Appendicular

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14
Q

Bones of the axial skeleton

A
  • Skull
  • Vertebral column
  • Rib cage
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15
Q

Bones of the skull

A
  • cranium (cranial vault)
  • facial bones
  • mandible
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16
Q

Bones of the vertebral column

A
  • cervical (7)
  • thoracic (12)
  • lumbar (5)
  • sacrum (5 fused) and coccyx (2-5 fused)
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17
Q

Bones of the rib cage

A
  • ribs

- sternum

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18
Q

Bones of appendicular skeleton

A
  • limbs

- regions: arm, forearm, thigh, leg

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19
Q

Main function of lower limb

A

Stability and locomotion (bipedal)

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20
Q

Main function of upper limb

A

Manipulation and mobility

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21
Q

Structure of limbs

A
  • single proximal long bone
  • two distal long bones
  • hands and feet
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22
Q

2 limb attachment points

A
  • pectoral (shoulder) girdle

- pelvic girdle

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23
Q

Bones of pectoral girdle

A
  • clavicle

- scapula

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24
Q

Bones of pelvic girdle

A
  • hip bones (2)
  • sacrum (axial)
    = pelvis
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25
Q

Function of pectoral girdle

A

For motility

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26
Q

Function of pelvic girdle

A

For stability

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27
Q

What is the pelvic girdle designed for

A

Limited movement for stability due to incoming forces from above.
- cope with locomotion.

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28
Q

Structure of hand

A

8 carpals
5 metacarpals
5 x 3 phalanges (2 phalanges in thumb)

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29
Q

What is the hand designed for

A

Manipulation and fine movements

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30
Q

Structure of the foot

A

7 tarsals
5 metatarsals
5 x 3 phalanges (2 in big toe)

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31
Q

What is the fit designed for

A
  • weight transfer
  • stability
  • elongated lever for assisting with locomotion.
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32
Q

Two bones of ankle joint

A

Articulation between tibia and talus.

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33
Q

Properties of Bone Tissue

A
  • bone has cells
  • bone grows
  • bone remodels
  • bone can repair itself
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34
Q

What type of tissue is bone tissue

A

Connective tissue

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35
Q

What are the two extracellular components of bone tissue

A
  • organic

- inorganic

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36
Q

How much of bone tissue is organic?

A

33%

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37
Q

How much of bone tissue is inorganic?

A

67%

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38
Q

What are the organic components of bone tissue

A
  • collagen (protein) (in fibers)

- ground substance (proteoglycans)

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39
Q

What is the function of organic component of bone tissue

A

Resist tension

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40
Q

What happens to bone if there isn’t the organic component

A

If collagen is removed -> brittle/breaks easily

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41
Q

What is the inorganic component of bone tissue composed of

A
  • hydroxyapatite (mineral salts)
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42
Q

What is the function of inorganic component of bone

A
  • resist compression (due to hardness) as one of the function of the bone is to support.
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43
Q

What happens if the inorganic of bone is removed

A

Mineral removed -> bone too flexible

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44
Q

What are the cellular components of bone

A
  • Osteoblasts
  • Osteocytes
  • Osteoclasts
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45
Q

Function of OB

A

Build ECM

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46
Q

Function of Ocytes

A

Mature bone cells (for communication in remodelling process)

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47
Q

Function of OC

A

Break down ECM

- multinucleated

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48
Q

Similarities in composition of compact and cancellous bone

A

Made of same material but organised in different was microscopically.

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49
Q

Compact bone at a gross level

A
  • outer surfaces seem impenetrable

- foramina/holes (towards ends)

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50
Q

Function of foramen in bone

A

Provide nutrient to cells trapped at compact level to maintain cells

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51
Q

Structures in compact bone at a microscopic level

A
  • osteon
  • lamellae
  • central canal
  • lacunae
  • canaliculi
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52
Q

Describe osteon

A

Longitudinal cylinder within compact bone.

- lamellae form a series of cylinders running longitudinally down shaft = osteon

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53
Q

Describe lamellae

A

Tubes of ECM with collagen fibres aligned to resist forces

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54
Q

Function of osteon

A

Maintain OC by providing nutrients

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55
Q

Function of lamella

A

Form a series of cylinders running longitudinally down shaft = osteon.

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56
Q

Describe central canal

A

Blood vessel and nerves

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57
Q

Describe lacunae

A

Lakes for Ocytes

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58
Q

Describe canaliculi

A

Channels for Ocytes thru ECM

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59
Q

Arrangement of collagen fibres in lamellae

A

Fibres in different directions to resist tensile forces

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60
Q

Describe periosteum

A

Fibrous connective tissue sheath around bone

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61
Q

Describe subperiosteal surface of bone

A

Surface of the bone where blood vessels penetrate

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62
Q

Describe the remodelling process

A
  • Osteoclastic front: osteoclasts come in through and destroy ECM, resulting in a void
  • osteoblasts come and build ECM
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63
Q

Structure of cancellous bone

A
  • trabeculae -> struts of lamellae bone
  • marrow fills the cavities
  • osteocytes housed in lacuna on surfaces of trabeculae
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64
Q

Function of cancellous bone

A
  • resist compressive forces and shock absorption
  • trabeculae in areas for shock absorption
  • aligned in certain ways to diffuse forces
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65
Q

Describe the zone of weakness

A

Forces coming from superior = strengthening on inferior part of neck to try to resist those forces.
- leaves area with less trabeculae to provide strength -> zone of weakness.

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66
Q

Describe the path of force from upper body to hip

A

Come from above, through sacrum, then joint between sacrum and pelvis, then hip bone, then neck of femur, then down shaft.

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67
Q

What is ossification

A

The process of transforming cartilage to bone

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68
Q

What does bone begin as

A

A cartilage model

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69
Q

Where is the primary centre of ossification

A

Diaphysis or shaft

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70
Q

Where is the secondary centre of ossification

A

Epiphysis

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71
Q

What are growth plates/epiphyseal plates made of

A

Cartilage

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72
Q

What is the process of bone formation

A
  • cartilage cells transformed into bone (bone formation spreading essentially from the centre to the ends) and destroyed by osteoblasts
  • the cartilage model then develops a periosteum that soon enlarges and produces a ring, or collar, of bone.
  • bone is deposited by OB, which differentiate from cells on the inner surface of the covering periosteum/
  • Soon after the appearance of the ring of bone, the cartilage begins to calcify, and a primary ossification centre forms when a blood vessel enters the the rapidly changing cartilage model at the midpoint of the diaphysis
  • endochondreal ossification progresses from the diaphysis toward each epiphysis, and the bone grows in length -> INTERSTITIAL GROWTH
  • secondary ossification enters appear in the epiphyses, and bone growth proceeds toward the diaphysis from each end.
  • bone tissue formed at bottom of growth plate
  • until bone growth in length is complete, epiphyseal plate remains between each epiphysis and the diaphysis
  • during periods of growth, proliferation of epiphyseal cartilage cells brings about a thickening of this layer.
  • Ossification of the additional cartilage nearest the diaphysis follows - that is, osteoblasts synthesise organic bone matrix, and the matrix undergoes calcification.
    As a result, the bone becomes longer.
  • it is the epiphyseal plate that allows the diaphysis of a long bone to inc in length.
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73
Q

How does the epiphyseal plate allow growth in length

A

= layer of cartilage between epiphysis and diaphysis

  • during periods of growth, proliferation of epiphyseal cartilage cells brings about a thickening of this layer
  • ossification of the additional cartilage nearest the diaphysis follows - OB synthesis organic bone matrix, and the matrix undergoes calcification
  • as a result, the bone becomes longer.
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74
Q

4 layers of cells of epiphyseal plates

A
  • top layer closest to the epiphysis composed of “resting” cartilage cells. These cells are not proliferating or undergoing change. This layer serves as a point of attachment firmly joining the epiphysis of a bone to the shaft.
  • Proliferating zone. Composed to cartilage cells that are undergoing active mitosis. As a result of mitotic division and increased cellular activity, the layer thickens and the plate as a whole increases in length.
  • zone of hypertrophy is composed of older, enlarged cells that are undergoing degenerative changes associated with calcium deposition.
  • layer closest to diaphysis = thin layer composed of dead or dying cartilage cells undergoing rapid calcification. As the process of calcification progresses, this layer becomes fragile and disintegrates. The resulting space is soon filled with new bone tissue, and the bone as a whole grows in length.
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75
Q

How do bones get wider

A

OB in periosteum

- OB lay down new bone on outside of shaft

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76
Q

How do bones get moulded into shape

A

OC from endosteum mould the bone shape and form the medullary cavity

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77
Q

What is bone pathology

A

An imbalance of OC or OB activity

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78
Q

What is Osteoporosis

A

When OC’s overtake OB’s

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79
Q

What is a symptom of osteoporosis in compact bone

A

Compact bone becomes thinner and porous

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80
Q

What is a symptom of osteoporosis in cancellous bone

A

Loss of volume

- compression fractures of vertebrae

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81
Q

Causes of osteoporosis

A
  • ageing-loss of oestrogen
  • lifestyle factors:
  • lack of exercise: exercises stimulates normal bone remodelling process
  • nutritional factors: diet high in Ca2+ is important
  • peak bone mass - bone as a bank: reach peak bone mass in 20’s, must maintain.
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82
Q

Components in Stage 1 of fractures

A
  • haematoma -> blood clot
  • capillaries -> capillaries invade site and bring phagocytes
  • phagocytes -> clean up debris (broken bone, soft tissue)
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83
Q

Components in stage 2 of fractures

A
  • fibroblasts -> formation of soft callus
  • chondroblasts (from differentiation of fibroblasts) -> form a pro callous made of cartilage = biological splinting
  • chondro = cartilage
  • fibrocartilaginous callus (procallus)
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84
Q

Components of stage 3 of fractures

A
  • bony callus -> OB invade cartilaginous callus and turn it into bone
  • osteoblasts
  • ends are now held together by bone
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85
Q

Components of stage 4 of fractures

A
  • remodelling
  • bone callus disorganised (“new bone”).
  • remodelled osteoblasts network of nature bone
  • remodel so the can’t see callus at all in children but in adults can see callus.
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86
Q

How long does it take for bony callus to form in child

A

6 weeks

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87
Q

What is pseudoarthrosis

A

False joint

  • due to no fixation of ends of bones
  • ends of bones continue to move on each other
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88
Q

3 types of fractures

A
  • Closed, simple
  • open, compound
  • greenstick
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89
Q

Describe closed simple fracture

A
  • break in bone but not too much rotation/displacement of bone ends on each other
  • minimal soft tissue damage
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90
Q

Describe open compound

A
  • displacement of bone ends -> lots of space between bone ends
  • bone may penetrate skin
  • lots of soft tissue damage (muscles, nerves)
  • if bone actually goes out of skin -> prone to infection
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91
Q

Describe green stick fracture

A
  • not a complete fracture (whereas there is complete discontinuation in closed and open)
  • more common in children (as their bone is not as mineralised as still growing)
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92
Q

What is an articulation

A

Where bones meet

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93
Q

What is a joint?

A
  • hold bones together
  • involves bone shapes and soft tissues
  • allow free movement or control movement
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94
Q

What are the soft tissues made of

A
  • Have no inorganic component

- cartilage: hyaline and fibrocartilage

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95
Q

Examples of structures made of hyaline cartilage

A
  • nose
  • not between sternum and ribs
  • cartilaginous model
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96
Q

Describe general cartilage composition

A
  • collagen fibres in a ground substance (for resisting tension)
  • chondrocytes live in lacuna
  • nutrients diffused through matrix by joint loading - not vascular
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97
Q

Why is cartilage made of collagen fibres

A

For resisting tension

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98
Q

Describe the structure of hyaline cartilage

A
  • collagen fibres barely visible

- high water content in matrix

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99
Q

Function of hyaline cartilage

A
  • resist compression

- provide smooth frictionless surface

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100
Q

Structure of fibrocartilage

A
  • collagen fibres form bundles throughout matrix

- orientation of fibres aligns with stresses

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101
Q

Function of fibrocartilage

A

Resist compression AND tension

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102
Q

Function of hyaline cartilage in joints

A
  • to provide frictionless movement of bones in synovial joints
  • moulds to surfaces of the bones where they articulate
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103
Q

How can hyaline cartilage degrade

A
  • with age

- trauma

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104
Q

Function of fibrocartilage

A
  • concave discs of fibrocartilage
  • deepens articulation at knee
  • can adapt its shape to stresses on joint in movement
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105
Q

eg of fibrocartilage

A
  • meniscus at knee joint

- between vertebral bodies.

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106
Q

What is bony congruence

A

the sum of the bone surfaces that form an articulation

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107
Q

Relationship between bony congruence and amount of soft tissue support

A

Less BC = more soft tissue support

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108
Q

What are ligaments and tendons made of

A
  • DFCT
  • collagen
  • fibroblasts(cytes)
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109
Q

Function of ligaments and tendons

A

Resist tension

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110
Q

Are ligaments and tendons vascularised

A

Some vascularity but minimal compared to bone.

- very slow healing.

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111
Q

Which structures do ligaments join

A
  • bone to bone
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112
Q

Function of ligaments

A
  • restrict movement
  • movement is restricted “away from itself”
    eg lateral restricts adduction
    eg medial restricts abduction
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113
Q

Which direction is movement restricted form in ligaments?

A

Away from itself.

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114
Q

Which structures do tendons join

A
  • muscle to bone
  • inserts into bone
  • muscle shortens, pull on tendon = pull on bone = produce movement.
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115
Q

Function of tendons

A
  • facilitates and controls movement

- contraction

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116
Q

How is ligament inserted

A
  • fibres insert into bone tissue

- zone of calcification where ligament turns into bone

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117
Q

How are tendons inserted

A
  • muscle merges with periosteum first and then into bone tissue.
  • area of mineralisation between bone and muscle
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118
Q

3 types of joints

A
  • fibrous joints
  • cartilaginous joints
  • synovial joints
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119
Q

What are fibrous joints made of

A

Tisse = DFCT

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120
Q

What is the difference between tissue and structure

A

Tissue is the material that makes up structure eg ligament

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121
Q

What is the structure of fibrous joints

A

Ligament

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122
Q

Function of fibrous joints

A

Limited movement. For stability.

- find where greater stability is required. Don’t want bones to move

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123
Q

Where is the ligament in fibrous joints

A

Directly between 2 bones and articulates and joints them together.

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124
Q

Examples of fibrous joints

A
  • Cranial sutures: stitch-like, short joints between bones of cranial vault.
  • main function is to protect brain and therefore don’t want cranial bones to move.
  • in between bones are short, strong joints made of DFCT
  • in distal tibiofibula joint
  • cements bones together with DFCT
  • weight thru body and ankle, and therefore don’t want to move apart: inefficient and vulnerable to injury

eg between root of teeth and jawbone

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125
Q

What are cartilaginous joints made of

A

Tissue = fibrocartialge

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126
Q

How much movement do cartilaginous joints allow

A

Some allowed and required

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127
Q

Function of cartilaginous joints

A
  • fibrocartilage resists compression and tension
  • find in parts of body where there are compressive forces and some movement between bones
  • special functions and various structures
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128
Q

Another name for Fibrous joints

A

Synarthroses

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129
Q

Another name for cartilaginous joints

A

Amphiarthroses

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130
Q

Another name for Synovial joints

A

Diarthroses

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131
Q

Examples of cartilaginous joints

A

eg intervertebral disc: joint between vertebral bodies

  • nucleus pulposis that rolls around as we move
  • disc is attached to bone by a ligament

eg pubic symphysis: joint between 2 pubic bones in pelvis

  • anterior joint of pelvis girdle
  • in between 2 bones -> disc of fibrocartilage -> cartilaginous joint
  • some movement allowed for both M and F as all of the forces are going through the posterior part of the pelvic girdle.
  • forces through torso, joints between sacrum and pelvic
  • need stability
  • but forces still go through the anterior art of the pelvic girdle
  • if had fibrous joint joint, which does not allow ANY movement, any diffusion of forces -> vulnerable to injury.
  • for females, in 3rd trimester. Hormonal release: relax joint and opens up during childbirth slightly.
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132
Q

How much movement do synovial joints allow

A
  • free-moving
  • in most joints of the limbs except eg distal tibiofibula joint
  • to allow free movement/locomotion and manipulation
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133
Q

What is the function of synovial joints

A

to allow locomotion
- facilitation of free movement (of bones over each other as we move)
AND
- control of movement where we want to restrict some movement

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134
Q

General structure of synovial joints

A

Complex association of tissues and structures

  • all of the different tissues present in some way
  • cartilage: hyaline and fibrous
  • DFCT
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135
Q

What determines the range of movement possible at a joint

A

Bone end shape

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136
Q

Describe the femoral head and the range of motion it allows

A
  • round projecting head of femur
  • completely encased in socket of pelvic bone
  • allows all types of movement: angular and rotation
  • deep articulation = high bony congruence and therefore is stable
  • less soft tissue support of the knee is required due to high bony congruence
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137
Q

Describe the femoral condyles and the range of motion it allows

A

Articulation from femural condyles onto flat surface of tibia

  • meniscus (made of fibrocartilage) deep articulation and help with accomodating lack of bony congruence and deepening articulation to increase stability
  • lot of soft tissue support outside around and inside too.
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138
Q

Where is articular cartilage found

A

covers bone ends where they articulate AND move over each other.

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139
Q

Is subchondral bone smooth

A

Yes. (under articular cartilage)

  • outside has foramen
  • roughened where ligaments and muscles attach
140
Q

Why do condyles project at the back

A

to allow full flexion and extension

- at the back there is smooth bone covered in articular cartilage

141
Q

What are the two types of ligaments

A

Capsular and intracapsular

142
Q

Describe capsular ligaments

A
  • primary ligament
  • like a sleeve
  • holds bones together: articulates and joints 2 bones together
  • tight & thick wire more support is required
  • loose on sides where movement is allowed -> loose and thin at a more mobile joint.
  • eg in shoulder joint -> very loose and thin joint capsule & therefor support must come form other structures (aka muscles in shoulder)
  • eg knee: thick on lateral and medial but loose and thin on posterior and anterior
  • potential space/cavity allows movement over each other.
  • synovial membrane lines the inner surface of the capsule
  • secretes synovial fluid -> lubrication of joint
143
Q

Describe the structure of synovial joint

A
  • joint capsule (goes from one bone, around bone ends to insert into other bone)
  • synovial membrane lies the joint capsule
  • articular cartilage around bone ends
  • cavity/potential space
  • synovial fluid (helps with movement in potential space). Lubricates joint
  • there may be fibrocartilage which deepen articulation, like meniscus
  • muscles around helps hold femural head.
144
Q

Describe structure of capsular ligament

A
  • thickening of capsule where more support is required
145
Q

Draw a labelled diagram of a synovial joint

A

.

146
Q

Describe the collateral ligaments of the knee

A
  • medial restricts abduction
  • lateral restricts adduction
  • a ligament restrict movement away from itself
147
Q

Function of intracapsular ligaments

A
  • restricts movement between bones
    eg knee: specifically stop femur from moving anteriorly or posteriors on the tibia.
  • when walking, tibia wants to move from side to side.
  • collateral ligaments placed medially and literally to stop adduction and abduction.
  • therefore only flexion/extension are allowed.
148
Q

Are intracapsular ligaments part of the capsule

A

No. It’s inside the capsule

149
Q

Where is the origin of intracapsular ligaments

A

Arise (originate) from tibia and insert into femur.

- cross over each other in knee

150
Q

How are the intracapsular ligaments in the knee arranged?

A
  • Anterior cruciate crosses posterior and insert into posterior parts
  • Posterior cruciate ligament inserts into anterior part of femur between two condyles
151
Q

how do the cruciate ligaments restrict movement of femur?

A
  • Anterior cruciate restricts posterior displacement of femur
  • posterior cruciate restricts anterior displacement of femur.
152
Q

Why are cruciate ligaments important for going up stairs, down/up steep slope etc

A

Femur wants to slide posteriorly off femur going up

Femur wants to slide anteriorly off femur going down

153
Q

How is the intracapsular ligaments usually damaged

A

From external forces -> fixation of tibia but rest of body keep moving.

154
Q

What are menisci made of

A

Fibrocartilage

155
Q

What is the fibrocartilaginous menisci important for

A

Deepening articulation between femur and tibia, and diffusing compressive forces.

156
Q

Main difference between fibrous and cartilaginous joints, and synovial joints

A
  • in fibrous and cartilaginous joints, tissue forming structures inside between bones -> glue bones together to either: stop movement entirely, or allow some movement
  • in synovial joints, the joint capsule goes from one bone to another bone and leaves those bone ends free to move over each other.
  • dependent on how much movement is allowed and where it needs to be restricted depends on where it is around the joint.
157
Q

What are bursae in the knee

A

Small sacs filled with synovial fluid, which act to protect the structures inside the knee, reducing friction as they slide over each other when the joint is moving.

158
Q

What is a fibrous joint made of

A

Two bones are held together with collagen.
- collagen fibres allow little, if any, movement

  • no cartilage
  • no fluid-filled joint cavity
159
Q

What is a cartilaginous joint made of

A

The ends of the bones in a cartilaginous joint are covered with a thin layer of hyaline cartilage, with the bones being connected by tough fibrocartilage.
- the whole joint is covered by a fibrous capsule usually.

  • do not allow much movement but they can “relax” under pressure, so giving flexibility to structures such as the spinal column
160
Q

What is a synovial joint made of

A

The bones are covered by hyaline cartilage and separated by a fluid.
- the joint cavity is lined by a synovial membrane and the whole joint is enclosed by a fibrous capsule.

161
Q

Give an example of sesamoid bones

A

Patella

  • irregular, but appear singularly
162
Q

Atlas

A

C1

163
Q

Axis

A

C2

164
Q

How to name phalanges

A

Distal and Proximal and Middle

165
Q

Structure of Osteocytes

A
  • giant

- multinucleic

166
Q

What’s another name name for Central canal

A

Haversian Canal

167
Q

What’s another name for transverse canal

A

Volkmann’s Canal

168
Q

What else is damaged in an open fracture

A
  • damaged muscle and nerve damage

eg can see bone through skin = penetrated skin

169
Q

How long does it take for a fracture to heal

A

6 weeks

170
Q

How many carpals and tarsals

A

8 and 7

171
Q

What do long bones function as

A

Levers for movement

172
Q

What do flat bones function as

A
  • protection eg ribs and sternum, cranial bones

- muscle attachment (eg scapula)

173
Q

What do short bones function as

A

Weight bearing/shock absorption

174
Q

Example of sesamoid bone

A

Patella

175
Q

What is the organic component of bone used for

A
  • growth, repair, remodelling, support
176
Q

What is the organic component of bone made of

A
  • Collagen

- ground substance of proteins secreted by CT cells.

177
Q

Function of osteoblasts

A
  • bone forming
  • make and secret osteoid (organic matrix)
  • made by stem cells in the endosteum
178
Q

What is osteoid

A

Organic matrix

179
Q

Where are OB made

A

By stem cells in the endosteum

180
Q

Function of OC

A
  • giant, multinucleate
  • erode bone minerals, which are reabsorbed into blood
  • many mitochondria and lysosomes
181
Q

Where are osteocytes

A

Embedded in matrix in lacunae

182
Q

What are Ocytes

A

Mature, non-dividing OB

183
Q

Structure of OC

A
  • many mitochondria and lysosomes
184
Q

Describe the process of endochondral ossification

A
  1. Periosteum develops and enlarges, producing a bone collar
  2. Blood vessels penetrate into diaphysis - centre of ossification
  3. fibroblasts in blood differentiate into OB and begin to reproduce spongy bone at the primary center
  4. Bone formation spreads along the shaft
  5. continuous remodelling occurs creating a marrow cavity
  6. secondary ossification enters form when capillaries and osteoblasts migrate into the epiphyses, which are soon filled with spongy bone
  7. a proliferating epiphyseal plate of hyaline cartilage remains at the metaphysics
185
Q

Describe the epiphyseal plate

A
  • responsible for lengthening of bones
  • chondrocytes (Cartilage cells) proliferate
  • OB synthesise organic matrix and it calcifies
  • when epiphyseal cartilage cells stop dividing and the cartilage completely ossifies, bone growth ends - epiphyseal cartilage disappears.
186
Q

How does growth in bone width occur

A

Osteoclasts enlarge diameter of medullary cavity

Osteoblasts from periosteum build new bone

187
Q

Describe osteoporosis

A
  • increased bone porosity
  • reduced mineral density and mass
  • vertebral bodies for example are very susceptible to damage due to high percentage of cancellous bone
  • osteoporotic bone is more susceptible to fractures
  • more common in menopausal women believed to be due to the decreased production of oestrogen.
188
Q

Process of bone healing

A
  1. blood vessel tears - vascular damage initiates repair process
    - hemorrhage and blood pooling forms a hematoma
    - granulation tissue forms - made of inflammatory cells, fibroblasts, bone and cartilage forming cells, new capillaries
  2. fibroblasts and chondroblasts form cartilaginous tissue (fibrocartilaginous callus)
    - procallus (soft callus)
    - soft callus with the in growth of granulation tissue
  3. Osteoblasts from bony callus - binds broken ends of fracture like a splint. (stability allows healing to proceed)
    - hard callus with in growth of cartilage and bone
  4. bone remodelling
    - hard callus with bone remodelling.
189
Q

Describe hyaline cartilage

A
  • most abundant
  • bluish due to high water content of matrix
  • matrix of collagen and ground substance (rich in chondroitin sulphate)
  • resists compression
  • frictionless movement of bones
  • degrades with age
190
Q

Which type of cartilage is most abundant?

A

Hyaline

191
Q

Describe elastic cartilage

A
  • elastic fibers for elasticity

- collegen for tensile strength

192
Q

Examples of elastic cartilage

A
  • external ear
  • epiglottis
  • eustachian tubes (connect middle ear to nasal cavity)
193
Q

Describe fibrocartilage

A
  • little matrix
  • lots of collagen
  • fibers align with stresses
  • strong, rigid, dense connective tissue
  • resists compression and tension
194
Q

Examples of fibrocartilage

A
  • pubic symphysis
  • intervertebral discs
  • menisci (increase bony congruence).
195
Q

Does fibrocartilage have LITTLE matrix

A

yes

196
Q

What are fibrous joints made of

A

DFCT

197
Q

What are fibrous joints

A
  • articulating surfaces fit closely together
  • fixed or limited movement
  • eg skull sutures (become ossified in older adults)
198
Q

What are cartilaginous joints made of

A
  • hyaline or fibrocartilage
199
Q

Describe cartilaginous joints

A

limited movement

- eg pubic symphysis - slight movement during childbirth

200
Q

What are synovial joints made of

A

Articular cartilage

201
Q

Describe synovial joints

A
  • freely movable joints
  • most numerous
  • most mobile
  • most anatomically complex
202
Q

Most numerous type of joint

A

Synovial

203
Q

What’s the ECM made of

A 
Extracellular matrix (ECM)
Solvent (water, ions)
Proteins
Collagen – strength
Elastin – elasticity
Glycoproteins – bind cells to ECM
Fibronectin
Laminin
204
Q

Human Tissue Act, 2008

A

Bequest: a body donated for study purposes
Informed consent given by the donor
Living spouse/relatives can override deceased person’s wishes
No limit to how long body parts are kept
Body to be treated ethically

205
Q

RMP is dependent on

A

The concentration of ions on either side of the membrane

The permeability of membranes

206
Q

Role of insulin and glucagon in the blood glucose feedback system

A

Insulin produced by beta cells -> blood glucose conc dec

Glucagon produced -> blood glucose conc inc

207
Q

C & C Hormonal vs Neuronal Comunication System

A

Neuronal:

  • fast
  • specific
  • good for rapidly changing conditions
  • good for brief responses
  • action potential in axons and neurotransmitter release at synapses

Hormonal:

  • targeting by expression of specific receptors on target cells
  • relatively slow but long lasting
  • hormones released into blood
  • good for widespread, sustained responses.
208
Q

Determinants of Range of movement

A
  1. shape of articulating bone surfaces
  2. ligament, tendon and muscle location and length
  3. body surface contact.
209
Q

Structure of a synovial joint (components)

A
  • bone ends
  • articular cartilage: dampen mechanical forces. Allows movement over each other
  • capsule: a continuation of periosteum where fracture healing takes place. Consist of collagen
  • cavity: not a cavity. Filled with synovial fluid.
  • synovial membrane: consist of synoviocytes producing synovial fluid -> constant production. Synovial fluid is also reabsorbed by the synoviocytes.
  • ligaments: guide motion of joint. ACL and PCL
  • intracapsular ligaments: cruciate ligaments
  • meniscus: inner and outer on knee. Distribute load in whichever position. Consists of cartilage
210
Q

Bursa

A

A synovial membrane filled with synovial fluid

- found in shoulder joint

211
Q

Function of bursae

A

Serves as cushioning
- at surfaces when tendons running through joints

  • comparable to joint cavity.
  • enclosed structure
212
Q

What is a synovial joint designed for

A

Movement

213
Q

Recess

A

Cavities formed by the joint capsule

214
Q

Factors that limit movement

A
  • Ligaments limit range of movement in certain joints
  • muscles can also limit
  • geometry of bony ends - most important - and cartilage on top
215
Q

What do intracapsular ligaments serve as (2 functions)

A
  • stabilisers
  • proprioreceptive function: realised how situated in space. Nerve fibres in ligament of joints and in receptors of the respective joint capsules
216
Q

Shape of condyles

A
  • less inclined at the front
  • bending and getting up -> largest forces at posterior
  • difference in geometry generate load peaks -> meniscus distribute load evenly.
217
Q

What is movement a balance between

A

Stability and mobility

- trade off between the 2

218
Q

Compare shoulder and hip joint

A

hip has lower range of movement as need stability compared to shoulder joint. (for locomotion)
- therefore shoulder joint dislocated more often than hip joint

219
Q

What is range of motion determined by

A
  • bone end shape
  • ligament location and length
    surface surface contact -> creating a counter force on either side (lots of overlap at femoral head and hip socket compared to shoulder joint: 20% contact as the shoulder joint is designed for mobility.
220
Q

What is the instrument for measuring ROM

A

Goniometer

221
Q

What is a goniometer

A

Used for measuring range of movement

222
Q

Different types of synovial joint shapes

A
  • hinge
  • pivot
  • saddle
  • ellipsoid
  • condylar
  • plane
  • ball and socket
223
Q

Uniaxial joints

A
  • hinge

- pivot

224
Q

Biaxial joints

A
  • saddle
  • ellipsoid
  • condylar
225
Q

Multiaxial joints

A
  • plane

- ball and socket

226
Q

Hinge joint

A

Uniaxial
- flexion and extension

eg

  • ankle
  • elbow (jumpers with ulna)
  • interphalangeal joints
  • refined, guided movement by ligaments on either side and surface of cartilage
227
Q

Pivot joint

A

Uniaxial
- rotation: supination and pronation

  • radioulnar joints
  • C1 and C2: atlas and axis. C2 sticks inside C1 -> allows rotation
  • ligaments guide movement
  • muscle around radius head allows for movement (proximal)
228
Q

Saddle joint

A

only found in one region

  • biaxil
  • flexion/extension
  • adduction - abduction
  • circumduction

Obligatory rotation opposition

eg carpometacarpal joint
base of thumb

provides huge stability

229
Q

Ellipsoid joint

A
  • bixaxial
  • flexion/extension (can be done to a larger degree than adduction and abduction)
  • adduction/abduction - towards ulna and radius
  • circumduction
    no rotation (very little rotation)

eg wrist joint

  • important for load distribution through ellipsoid joint
230
Q

Condylar joint

A

Biaxial

  • flexion - extension
  • rotation

eg knee joint - ligaments -> flexion and extension
- temporomandibular joint

  • limited range of motion by ligaments or other structures eg bony ends
231
Q

Which cruciate ligament tenses during extension

A

Posterior

  • during flexion the ACL tenses
232
Q

Plane joint

A
  • sliding and gliding
  • flat articular surfaces
  • intercarpal
  • inter tarsal
  • limited movement by dense ligaments
  • only works if the surfaces are fairly even and fairly flat.
  • surfaces that can glide on top of each other.
233
Q

Ball and Socket joint

A
  • multiaxial
  • flexion/extension
  • adduction-abduction
  • circumduction
  • rotation

eg shoulder
hip

Guided by the long tendons of brachii muscle

Intracapsular ligament in shoulder joint also with proprioreceptive function

234
Q

Describe the glenwood cavity joint

A

Joint surface at scapula much smaller than joint surfaces on the humeral side that allows for huge range of movement

  • shoulder joint
  • not only guided by ligaments but also by tendons of muscles
  • > by long tendon of biceps brachii
235
Q

What guides the movement of shoulder joints along with ligaments

A

Long tendon of biceps brachii

236
Q

What is muscle designed for

A

to contract

237
Q

What affects the function of muscle

A

Arrangement of fibres

238
Q

3 types of muscles

A

Skeletal - small striated fibres
Smooth - GI system, eye, other viscera
Cardiac - completely different function and metabolism and microstructure. Merging skeletal and smooth functionalities

239
Q

What is the connective tissue that the muscle cells are wrapped in?

A

Type 1 collagens

  • forms sheaths at all magnifications
  • useful to create huge forces
240
Q

What collagen form the layers of connective tissue that wrap around muscle cells?

A

Type 1 collagens

241
Q

Functions of Skeletal muscle (4)

A
  1. Movement
    - to any extent
    - eg locomotion
  2. Heat Production
    - body temperature
    - freezing -> shivering from skeletal muscles shaking 20-30Hz. Create a huge amount of heat
    - 20-30Hz muscle shaking
  3. Posture
    - maintained by skeletal muscles
  4. Communication
    - gestures
    - body language
    - muscles of face: smiling, looking
    - key driver of effective communication
    - 80% gestural, 20% verbal.
242
Q

Fascia

A

Collective term for all connective tissue - in muscle and between muscle
- can be extended to tendons

243
Q

What does muscle extend into

A

Bone.

- which consists of collagen (type I) and hydroxyapatite

244
Q

Endomysium

A

Single muscle fibre wrapped in

245
Q

Perimysium

A

Fibre bundles wrapped in

  • important for blood: arteries and veins
  • region where blood supply travel through
246
Q

Epimysium

A

wraps muscle all around

247
Q

How long is one muscle fibre

A

up to 40mm

248
Q

How are muscle fibre arranged

A

Parallel
Cylindrical
Striated - protein arrangement (repeat arrangement of proteins)

249
Q

Are muscle cells single or multi nuclei

A

Multinuclear

  • cells merged so more than 1 nuclei
  • nuclei not in middle of cell
  • pushed aside otherwise in way of contractile mechanism
250
Q

2 key proteins in muscle cells

A

Actin and myosin

- enable muscle contraction -> fibres merged into a composite called sacromere

251
Q

two key metabolites for muscle cells

A

ATP and Ca2+

252
Q

What are actin and myosin

A

2 key proteins in muscle cells

253
Q

What are ATP and Ca2+ for muscle cells

A

key metabolites

254
Q

What is a sarcomere

A

Actin and myosin merged into one functional composite.

  • segment of myofibril between 2 successive Z discs
  • each sarcomere function as a contractile unit
  • A bands of sarcomeres appear as relatively wide, dark stripes (cross striae) under the microscope, and they alternate with narrower, light-coloured stripes formed by the I bands
255
Q

Components of muscle cells

A

Myocyte
Myofibril
Myofilaments in sarcomere (thick and thin proteins)
Sarcomere = protein arrangement

256
Q

Length of sarcomere

A

2 µm

257
Q

How is the sarcoplasmic reticulum specialised

A

For liberate Ca2+ upon to facilitate muscle contraction

258
Q

How are sarcomeres arranged

A

end-on-end along myofibril in length

  • Z line
  • boundaries of sarcomere
  • link actin filaments
  • composed of myosin and actin
    • sarcomere framed by actin
    • reaching towards the other side of the sarcomere
    • cannot change length
  • myosin in middle
  • contractile process -> myosin carried into actin ends
259
Q

What is the contractile process of the muscle

A

Myosin carried into actin ends

260
Q

What do the arms on the myosin do

A

Under metabolism of ATP to ADP, help muscle fibres to contract
- E dependent mechanism.

261
Q

What is the Z line made by

A

Connection between sarcomere

262
Q

What is the A line

A

Whole length of myosin

263
Q

What is the I line

A

Between the ends of the myosin

264
Q

What happens when muscle shortens

A
  • thin drawn towards each other over thick
  • Z lines move closer together (1µm apart)
  • oblique to line of pull
265
Q

What does the uni and multipennate arrangement allow

A

Capable of exerting much larger forces than just arranged longitudinally

266
Q

Important factors for muscle contraction

A
  • actin and mysoin interdigitate (merging with each other)
  • actin and myosin retain their length: actin move relative to myosin -> shortening
  • process consumes E
  • Ca2+ essential
267
Q

What does muscle contraction process consume

A

Energy

268
Q

What does muscle form determines function. What does it depend on

A
  1. length of muscle fibres - longer = larger lengths. different along different levers.
  2. number of muscle fibres -> if really thick -> exert more force eg muscle belly thick
  3. arrangement of muscle fibres -> eg pennate manner -> exert more force
269
Q

Which manner of muscle exert more force

A

Pennate

270
Q

How much can muscle fibres shorten

A

50% of resting length

271
Q

Where is a large ROM found in

A

Long muscle fibres: longest in hamstrings and quads

272
Q

1st factor of muscle form

A

Length of muscle fibres

273
Q

2nd factor of muscle form

A

number of muscle fibres

274
Q

What is tension directly proportional to

A

Cross sectional area

275
Q

Where do muscle originate and insert

A

Originate from site closer to heart (pro)

- insert at distal

276
Q

Relationship between number of fibres, SA and tension

A
  • greater number of fibres = greater SA = greater tension
277
Q

What is pennate

A

When fibres are oblique to muscle tendon
= more fibres into same space
- oblique to line of pull (uni, bi, multi)

278
Q

2 types of cross sectional areas

A
  • anatomical and physiological
279
Q

Advantage of oblique arrangement

A

Higher cross sectional areas -> exert higher forces

280
Q

Are relaxed muscles slightly active

A

Yes

281
Q

How is the activity of relaxed muscle produced

A

Delivered by certain amount of nerve activity -> heat production 20-30Hz

282
Q

What happens if nerves didn’t innervate muscles

A

Hypotrophic

- even atrophic

283
Q

What is the substance that is released from the synaptic terminal of motor neurone

A

Acetyl choline

terminal ends of nerve fibres - release neurotransmitter

284
Q

What is the effect of ACh

A

Depolarise muscle cell to the effect that Ca2+ is liberated

285
Q

What happens when Ca2+ is released as a result of ACh depolarising the cell

A

helps sarcomeres to contract

286
Q

Which substances help sarcomere to contract

A

Ca2+ and ATP

287
Q

Does muscle tone produce movement

A

No

288
Q

Properties of muscle tone

A
  • does not produce movement
  • keeps muscles firm and healthy
  • helps stabilise joints and maintain posture
  • keep muscle metabolically active. If immobilised -> hypertrophic -> loss of protein eg after removing cast
289
Q

Importance/function of muscle tone

A
  • Keep muscles firm and healthy
  • helps stabilise joints and maintain posture
  • keep muscle metabolically active. If immobilised -> hypertrophic -> loss of protein eg after removing cas
290
Q

2 fibre types

A

Fibre type I

Fibre type II

291
Q

Fibre Type I

A

high enzyme activity

- aerobic, slow-twitching -> marathon runners

292
Q

Fibre type II

A

Low enzyme activity

  • anaerobic, fast-twitching -> sprinters
  • many contractions in a short time
293
Q

Can there be more than one muscle type in a single muscle

A

Yes

eg both Fibre type 1 and fibre type 2 muscles in a muscle. Can change ratio over time due to training etc

294
Q

Components of the Motor Unit

A
  • myofibril
  • myofibril
  • myofilaments in sarcomere: composed of thick and thin proteins
  • sarcolemma
  • T-Tubules
  • Sarcoplasmic reticulum
295
Q

Sarcomere

A

protein arrangement

296
Q

Function of Sarcoplasmic reticulum

A

Store Ca2+, which allows muscle contraction

297
Q

3 connective tissues around muscle fibres

A
  • Endomysium
  • Perimysium
  • Epimysium
298
Q

Which is the key structure to allow vascular and nerve supply

A

Perimysium

- allow for sliding of muscle fascicles relative to each other

299
Q

Which connective tissue of muscle allow for sliding of muscle fascicles relative to each other

A

Perimysium

300
Q

Where are the nuclei in muscle fibres

A

Pushed aside

  • if in middle, prevents proper contraction
  • therefore merged, as a functional unit
  • so more than 1 nuclei for each fibre.
301
Q

Key proteins in myofilament

A

Actin (thin) and thick (myosin) proteins

302
Q

What is the motion of the musculosystem mainly based on

A

proteins: muscles, tendons, ligaments

303
Q

Which muscle fibre type doesn’t contract as often

A

Fibre type I (high enzyme activity) -> marathon runners

304
Q

What is the fascia

A

Extension of muscle towards other muscles/structures

  • a band or sheet of connective tissue, primarily collagen, beneath the skin that attaches, stabilizes, encloses, and separates muscles and other internal organs.
305
Q

What is muscle function largely driven by

A

Nerve action

306
Q

Where do axons extend down to

A
  • terminate at proximal insertions

- save protein and make muscle contract as fast as possible

307
Q

Feedback mechanisms of neuromusclar junction

A

feedback provided by spinal nerve (root ganglion)

  • receives feedback of how muscles are situated in space
  • proprioreceptor
  • signals integrated to tendons and muscles via nerves articulated in spinal root ganglion.
308
Q

Where is the spinal nerve

A

Slightly outside of spinal cord

309
Q

Route of an excitation

A

Most nerve cells that generate an excitation sit at the ventral root of spinal cord

  • must travel all the way down to the muscle they innervate with axons
  • but only go as far as proximal insertion of a muscle begins
  • go as proximal as possible
  • to increase the velocity of signal transduction and to save material within axons in neurons
310
Q

Where do most nerve cells that generate an excitation sit?

A

Ventral root of spinal cord

311
Q

Difference between ventral and dorsal root

A

The ventral roots (anterior roots) allow motor neurons to exit the spinal cord. The dorsal roots (posterior roots) allow sensory neurons to enter the spinal cord.

312
Q

What is a dorsal root ganglion

A

a cluster of nerve cell bodies (a ganglion) in a dorsal root of a spinal nerve. The dorsal root ganglia contain the cell bodies of sensory neurons

313
Q

Why do the axons terminate as proximal as possible?

A

To inc velocity of signal transduction and to save material within axons in neurons

314
Q

How can muscle movement be refined

A

How fast the axons are firing

315
Q

Are axons myelinated

A

Yes.

316
Q

Motor endplate

A

the large and complex end formation by which the axon of a motor neuron establishes synaptic contact with a skeletal muscle fiber (cell)

317
Q

How is a stimulus transferred

A

Electrical -> Chemical -> Electrical

318
Q

Process of sending a stimulus at the axon

A
  • electric simulus via axon being transmitted to chemical at synaptic cleft and then back to electrical at skeletal muscle cells.
  • tiny vesicles to release compounds into synaptic cleft -> ACh
  • another transmission by polarisation -> muscle contract
  • When nerve impulses reach the end of a motor neuron fiber, small vesicles release a neurotransmitter, acetylcholin (Ach), into the synaptic cleft
  • Diffusing swiftly across this microscopic gap, acetylcholine molecules contact the sarcolemma of the adjacent muscle fiber.
  • There they stimulate acetylcholine receptors and thereby initiate an electrical impulse in the sarcolemma.
  • The process of synaptic transmission and induction of an impulse is called excitation
319
Q

What is the neurotransmitter between nerves and skeletal muscle cells (and some smooth)

A

ACh

320
Q

What is the process of chemical transmission

A

Diffusion

321
Q

Why have electrical transmission after chemical

A

Chemical takes a long time, so have electrical transmission on outer surface of axon

322
Q

Why is Ca2+ so important for contraction?

A
  • proteins do not become longer/shorter
  • Ca2+ changes the configuration of actin for making protein
  • Ca2+ is responsible for the ends of myosin to make movement that allows muscle contractions
  • bound within sarcoplasmic reticulum (while muscles not activated and is released upon contraction
323
Q

Why is Ca2+ important for contraction?

A

Calcium triggers contraction by reaction with regulatory proteins that in the absence of calcium prevent interaction of actin and myosin.

324
Q

Process of muscular contraction

A

A neural synapse induces an action potential in a muscle cell (fiber) that, in turn, results in calcium ions to be released into the cytosol from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (excitation-contraction coupling) when calcium channels open. Calcium binds to troponin-C to initiate contraction and this will continue until excitation ceases and the molecular calcium pumps in the sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane remove and sequester the calcium.

So the presence of intracellular calcium causes contraction, and its removal allows the muscle to relax.

325
Q

Cellular composition of motor unit

A
  • NMJ
  • Sarcolemma
  • T-tubules (transport Ca2+, make Ca2+ available for contraction)
  • SR
  • Ca2+
326
Q

General functions of muscle (plus 2 extra)

A
  • heat production
  • posture
  • movement
  • communication
  • cushioning
  • protection of vital organs
327
Q

Quadrupedal standing

A
  • broad base of support (low base of support)
  • legs flexed at several joints
  • energetic expenditure
328
Q

Bipedal standing

A
  • relatively small area of contact with ground
  • plantar surface of feet
  • energy efficient
  • characteristic for very few species
329
Q

What does gravity act as

A

Act as a agonist or antagonist

  • helps to position our body in space
  • use gravity as a counterforce eg as a resistance for locomotion.
330
Q

Where is the line of gravity in the sagittal plane

A

Runs through body

  • runs right down in the middle
  • redistribute via both hip joint then down to ankles
331
Q

Where is the line of gravity in the coronal plane

A
  • runs through spine
  • far behind in the head (type I lever -> keep head lifted)
  • spinal column is curved (the line of gravity sometimes run a bit anterior or posteriors to the spine)
  • posterior to hip joint
  • at the ankle, slightly anterior
332
Q

Hip joint when bipedal standing

A
  • LoG posterior to joint (therefore effect of gravity on the weight of the body tends to extend the hip joints further)
  • joint “pushed” into extension
  • extension = ligaments are tight = minimal muscle activity needed to hold the joint in extension
333
Q

What is a locked position

A

Ligaments are tightened

334
Q

Characters of the capsular ligaments of the hip joint

A
  • dense
  • do not run straight down
  • wrapped around the joint. Curved
  • therefore limit the way we externally and internally rotate
  • also prevent from falling back by the ligaments being tensed so don’t need quad or iliopsoas to contract just when standing.
335
Q

how thick are the capsular ligaments of the hip joint

A

up to 0.5cm

336
Q

Knee joint when standing

A

Line of gravity is anterior to knee joint

  • when joint locked into position -> line of gravity is close to patella
  • slight overextension when standing
  • joint “pushed” into extension
  • extension = ligaments are tight -> LOCKED = minimal muscle activity needed to hold joint in extension
  • PCL really tense when standing -> stable position
  • collateral ligaments help to stabilise in extended position too.
337
Q

Ankle joint when standing

A

Line of gravity is slightly anterior helping it to fall into a dorsal position

  • NOT LOCKED because allowing for balance
  • plantar flexors of ankle (particularly soleus) are active all the time, providing sufficient tension to withstand the effect of gravity.
  • “falls” into dorsal extension
  • plantarflexors stabilise
  • energy consumed
338
Q

Which joints are not locked when standing?

A

Ankle

  • hip and knee are locked
339
Q

why is the ankle joint not locked when standing

A

to allow for balance

  • lever of the ankle joint to LoG is really long, so only fine movements are necessary for balancing
340
Q

What inserts into calcaneous?

A

Achilles tendon

341
Q

Which muscle inserts into Achilles tendon

A

Triceps surae

342
Q

What helps with standing with as little energy as possible

A

Muscles and ligaments

343
Q

Main features of bipedal standing

A
  • bipedal stance is characteristic to humans
  • feet form base of support (plantar surfaces), but insufficient size to provide only balance solution
  • bones joints and muscles have special anatomical features to assist balance solution WITH AS LITTLE MUSCLE AND ENERGETIC EFFORT AS NECESSARY
  • standing achieved with very little muscular effort - most at ankle joint
344
Q

Characteristics of bipedal (human walking)

A
  • is learnt
  • gait is characteristic
  • basic pattern is gait cycle
  • STANCE phases and SWING phases
  • “heel-strike” and “toe-off”
345
Q

What is the stance phase

A

Foot touches ground and overcome gravity

346
Q

Whats the swing phase

A

Provide locomotion and move forward.

347
Q

What are the 8 phases

A
  1. initial contact
  2. loading response
  3. mid stance
  4. terminal stance
  5. pre-swing
  6. initial swing
  7. mid swing
  8. terminal swing

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