movement? Flashcards
1
Q
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
summery of exchange
A
- some cells are deep within = large pathway
- large animals have a small SA to volume ratio
- so multicellular organisms require exchange organs and transpot methods
2
Q
EXCHANGE
examples of substances exchanged
A
o2
co2
urea
water
glucose
fatty acids
amino acids
vitimins
heat
3
Q
EXCHANGE
2 types of exchnage
A
active = metabolic energy required
passive
4
Q
EQUATION
volume and SA of sphere
A
SA = 4 pi R^2
volume = 4/3 pi R^3
5
Q
SINGLE CELL ORGANISMS
exchange summery
A
- need to exhange directly with environment for processes within the cell
- waste substances need to be removed also so the cell isnt harmed
- diffusion increases with SA volume ratio
Thin = short pathway
Large SA = more diffusion taking place
Moist = allows gasses to dissove speeding up diffusion
6
Q
COMMON MISCONSEPTION
cell wall
A
very permeable
7
Q
INSECT EXCHANGE
features of respitory system
A
spiracle
trachea
air sac
tracheoles
muscle fibres
8
Q
INSECT EXCHANGE
exosceleton features
A
made of chitin
impermeable to water and air
9
Q
INSECT EXCHANGE
how does the abdomen work
A
- abdomen contracts, increasing pressure, volume decreases, air forces out down the pressure gradient
- abdomen relaxes, decreasing pressure, volume increases, forcing air in down the pressure gradient
10
Q
INSECT EXCHANGE
how to prevent water loss
A
spiracles close via valves at rest to prevent water loss
11
Q
INSECT EXCHANGE
how do the spiracles work to get to each cell
A
- internal network of trachea and tracheoles that are guarded by spiracles
- every cell is only a very short distance from a trachea or tracheole so pathway is shorter
12
Q
INSECT EXCHANGE
how is loosing water an issue
A
- terrestrial
- large SA means large water loss
13
Q
THE HEART
EXTRA PARTS THAT I DIDNT LEARN BEFORE
A
- atrioventricular valves
- tendinous chord
- papillary muscles
14
Q
THE HEART
What happens to the lumen
A
When it’s under pressure it becomes smaller to squeeze more blood
15
Q
THE HEART
Myocardium
A
- made from cardiomyocytes
- both pumping same amount of blood
- left v is thicker because a higher force is needed to overcome the resistance of the systemic circuit
16
Q
THE HEART
Functions of coronary arteries
A
- supplies heart tissue which glucose and oxygen
- can be blocked by a clot causing a myocardial infraction
- this deprives oxygen to the heart so can’t respire, meaning tissue dies
17
Q
THE HEART
Atrioventricular valves
A
- open when pressure is higher in atria then ventricles
- close when pressure is higher in ventricles
- tendinous chords attach to papillae muscles to prevent the valves turning inside out
18
Q
THE HEART
Semi lunar valves
A
- open when pressure is higher in ventricles compared to aorta/ pulmonary artery
- close when pressure is higher in aorta/ pulmonary artery
19
Q
THE HEART
Atrial systole
A
Both contract
- volume down, pressure up
- atrioventricular open
- blood forced into ventricles down pressure gradient
- semi lunar close
20
Q
THE HEART
Ventricular systole
A
Both contact
- volume down, pressure up
- atrioventricular close
- semi lunar open
- blood into aorta/ pulmonary artery
21
Q
THE HEART
Diastole
A
Both relax
- blood flows in atria and ventricles from outside
- Atrioventricular valves open
- presssure in ventricals drop causing a recol and the valve to snap back and shut to avoid backflow
22
Q
EXCHANGE SYSTEMS IN FISH
why does it need an exchnage system
A
- low surface area to volume raito
- multi cellular
- bodies are gas tight
23
Q
EXCHANGE SYSTEMS IN FISH
gill facts
A
- each gill arch is made up of gill fillaments
- the gill fillaments are made up of lamellae
- covered with epithelial tissues
24
Q
EXCHANGE SYSTEMS IN FISH
counter current flow
A
- water and blood flow in opposite directions to maintain a concentration gradient for the whole length of the lamellae
- if they flow the same direction, the conc gradient is only maintained half way
25
EXCHANGE SYSTEMS IN FISH
efficiency
- counter current flow
- unidirectional flow = constant water over gills
- no wasted energy on tidal flow as water is more dense then air
- high SA of lamellae
26
EXCHANGE SYSTEMS IN FISH
water relationship with temp
higher the temp the lover levels of o2 are dissolvedd in water
has to overcome by becoming more efficient
27
EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
how are plants and insects sililar
- many pores in both - insects = spiracles, plants = stomata
- many inter connecting air spaces - insects = tracheoles, plants = air spaces in spongy mesophyll
- both adapted to water loss - insects = chitin, plants = waxy cuticle
28
EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
whats an organ
- group of tissues working together towards a function
eg: flower, stem
29
EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
leaf structure definitions
waxy cuticle
palisade mesophyll
xylem
phloem
waxy cuticle = thin layer to prevent water loss
palisade mesophyll = packed with chloroplasts for photosynthesis
xylem = transports water to leaf cells
phloem = stansports sugars to leaf cells
30
EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
leaft structure definitions
spongy mesophyll
guard cells
stomata
spongy mesophyll = air spaces allow a larger surface are for gas exchange
guard cell = control size of stomata
stomata = allows gasses in and out, water loss occours from here
31
EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
whats a xerophyte
- plant adapted to live in very hot and dry conditions
32
EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
xerophyte adaptation
- stomata sunk in pits = reduces water potential difference with air
- fine hairs cobvering epidermis = reduces water potential difference
- thicher waxy cuticle = increases diffusion lengh
- fewer stomata = less exchnage sites to loose water
- curled leaves = protecting stomata from wind as wind increases evaporation
33
THE HEART
whats myogenic
doesnt require any external stimuli
34
THE LUNGS
gross structure of the lungs
oxygen in the air
trachea
bronchus
bronchioles
through the epithilial cells
alveoli
through the endothelial cells
o2 in blood
35
THE LUNGS
inhaling
- external intercostals contact, thorax moves up
- internal intercostals relax
- diaphragm contracts and collapses
- volume increases and pressure decreases in thorax cavity
- air flows in, down a pressure gradient
36
THE LUNGS
exhaling
- internal intercostals contact, thorax moves down
- external intercostals relax
- diaphragm relaxes into dome shape
- volume decreases and pressure increases in thorax cavity
- air flows out, down a pressure gradient
37
THE LUNGS
adaptations
many alveoli - large SA for diffusion
many capillaries - large SA for diffusion
endothelial and epithelial cells - thin allowing a short diffusion pathway
ventelation maintains a conc gradient
flattened endothelial allows a short diffusion pathway
38
MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
why need exchnage systems
- have a small surface area to volume ratio
- oxygen cant diffuse to inner cells
39
THE LUNGS
emphysema
damaged alveoli = reducing surface area, harder ventilation
40
MASS TRANSPORT
main blood vessles need to know
vena cava
p artery
p vein
aorta
renal vein
renal artery ---- kidneys
41
MASS TRANSPORT
function of the blood vessels
arteries - blood away
arterioles - links arteries to capillaries
capillaries - arterioles to veins
veins - blood towards heart
42
MASS TRANSPORT
why do we have a double circulatory system
- need more o2 and glucose for respiration so its delivered at a higher pressure to maintain the high metabolic rate
43
MASS TRANSPORT
arteries structure
thick muscle - contact to control blood flow
elastic wall - strech and recoil maintaining blood pressure
narrow lumen - maintain high pressure
no valves - except aorta
smooth endotheilium - reduces friction
44
MASS TRANSPORT
arterioles structure
thicker muscles then arteries - control blood into capilaries
thinner elastic layer
no valves
smooth endothelium - reduces friction
45
MASS TRANSPORT
structure of veins
thin muscle layer - less contacting
thin elastic - low pressure = less recoil
pocket valves - one way flow
wider lumaen - maintain low pressure
thin walls - skeletal muscle to squeeze veins
46
MASS TRANSPORT
capillaries structure
thin layer - short diffusion distance
branched - large SA
narrow lumen - RBC close for diffusion
spaces imbetween cells - allow WBC to escape
47
MASS TRANSPORT
how does blood flow speed change
arteries = fast
capillaries slow = large cross sectional area = friction meaning more time for diffusion
48
LUNGS
how does breathing alter with age
Intercostal muscles are weaker / less affective
Less elasticity in lung tissue
49
TISSUE FLUID
whats the role andwhat does it contain
- surronds all cells of the body and allows exchnage of substances between blood and cells
contains : glucose, amino acids, water, co2, nitrogenous waste
50
TISSUE FLUID
the formation at the arteriole end
- higher hydrostatic pressure then osmotic pressure
- forces water and small mollecules out ( ultra flitration )
- protens and cells remain in capillaries as blood plasma, lowering water potential in capillary
- exchange occours of glucose, amino acids, o2 = to cells
- exchnage from cells of co2 and nitogenous waste
51
TISSUE FLUID
what happens at the venous end
- hydrostatic pressure drops due to reduced volume in capillary, inreased friction with cappilary walls sue to large cross sectional area
- some water returns to capillaries via osmois aswell as co2, hormones, nitorgenous waste ect
- others drained into lymphatic sysyem
- lymph is pale yellow and drains into circulatory system via thoracic duct
- some have valves, similar to veins as muscle contraction move lymph
52
DIGESTION
Definition
Process of large insoluble molecules being hydrolysed by enzymes into smaller soluble molecules where they can be absorbed across cell membranes
53
DIGESTION
physical and chemical
Physical - teeth break down good into smaller peices, increasing surface area. Stomach muscles contact to churn the food which physically breaks it up
Chemical - digestive enzymes function via hydrolysis, splitting the large molecules by adding water, to chemical bonds.
54
DIGESTION
definition of large intestine, oesophagus and salivary glands
- LI - larger tube where water is absorbed
O - Carries food from mouth to stomach via peristalsis
SG - glands that secrete the enzyme amylase which hydrolyse starch to maltose
55
DIGESTION
Definition of rectum, stomach, pancreas, illium
Rectum - final section of intestines, faeces are stored here before being removed via anus
Stomach - muscular sac which has glands to produce digestive enzymes
Pancreas - large gland below the stomach produces enzymes for digestion
Illium - long muscular tube which have folded inner walls = villi
56
DIGESTION
what are the digestive enzymes
Carbohydrase - carbs to monosaccharides
Eg: amylase, beaks down starch into maltose, malsase breaks it down into glucose
Lipase breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids
Protease beaks down proteins into amino acids
57
DIGESTION
illium adaptations
- thin epithelial cells = short diffusion pathway
- folded lumen into villi = increased SA
- Large capillary network = substances taken away, maintains conc gradient
- smooth muscle = contracts so nutrients are close to microvilli for diffusion
- membrane bound enzymes = large molecules can be hydrolysed at the point of absorption so not lost during excretion
58
HAEMGLOBIN
what's the properties
- made up of 4 polypeptide chains
- contains 4 heme groups of FE2+
- iron is charged, each heme group binds to one O2 molecule
59
HAEMGLOBIN
disassociation curve shape, features at lungs and tissues
sigmoidal shape
- lungs have a high partial pressure, associating with o2
- tissues - they have a low partial pressure, haemoglobin has a low affinity, disasociates due to muscles needing for respiation
60
HAEMGLOBIN
cooperative binding - why steep and slows
steep = 1st O2 binds to heme group = a change in quaternary and tertiary structure, uncovering the 2nd and third heme group
slows = harder to 4th O2 to bind, lesschange of clollision at the empty bonding site
61
HAEMGLOBIN
Bohr shift
- occours during excersise
co2 dissolves in blood plasma = acidic enviroment, lowers PH, increases temperature, affects tertiary structure of haemoglobin
- curve moves right, has a lower affinity of oxygen, oxygen disasociates quicker, more oxygen for respiration for ATP
62
HAEMGLOBIN
left shift
2 circumstanses
FETUS
- high affinity for O2, this allows survival for partial pressure, due to less oxygen reaching the placenta as mother has used some
- Animals in places with low O2, due to low partial pressure, higher affinity is needed for o2 for respiration
63
DIGESTION
whole process of starch hydrolysis
- salivary glands produce = mineral salts = neutralises the PH to the optimum conditions for amylase
Produces amylase to hydrolyse starch but not fully
- starch and amylase will travel to the stomach, hydrolysis slows as the enzymes denature due to the stomch acids
- the pancreas secretes amylase, protease and alkine salts ( seautralises stomach acid in ( SI ) = starch broken to malsose
- in the small intestine the membrane bound enzymes maltose, sucrose, lactose. Maltose hydrolyses maltase into glucose at point of absorption
64
DIGESTION
protein dygestion
definition of the 3 proteins
endopeptidases = hydrolyse peptide bonds in the centeral regions. ( stomach )
exopeptidases = hydrolyse peptide bonds on the terminal ends of amino acids. Leaving dipeptides. ( stomach )
dipeptidases = hydrolysses peptide bonds in dipeptides forming single amino acids in the illium.
65
DIGESTION
Process of the digestion of lipids
- lipids are emulsified by bile salts increasing surface area into micelles
- micelles are hydrolysed by lipase produced in pancreas to monoglycerides and fatty acids
- these are lipid soluble so enter epithlial cells by simple diffusion
- triglycerides reformed in endoplactic recticulum and modified at golgi aparatus into chilomicrons
- they exit via exocytosis due to being a large molecule, into the lymphatic system
66
DIGESTION
Chilomicrons definition
They are lipoproteins, they transport dietary lipids from SI to other locations through the lymphatic system
67
THE XYLEM
properties (7)
- elongated and arranged end to end to form vessels
- cells die when mature and are hollow due to lignification
- no cytoplasm or nucleus to maintain water flow
- cell walls thick with lignin= waterproof
- rigid, won’t collapse under tension
- pits to allow lateral movement
- narrow lumen, increases height that water can rise by capillary action
68
THE XYLEM
how does water move
- exits via stomata via transpiration, reduces water potential in cells, leading to osmosis
- water is drawn up and out of the xylem to replenish water lost via transpiration
- this occours due to water cohesion and H bonds, and adhesion with cell walls thick = tension
- water which is lost is replaced via osmosis at the roots
69
THE XYLEM
Evidence for what we movement in xylem
1. changes in diameter of tree trunk
- day time = increased transpiration due to stomata open for photosynthesis = water is lost means xylem under tension = narrower trunk
2. Xylem vessel broken, air enters = water can’t be drawn up due to continuous column broken ( H bonds )
3. Xylem vessels broken = water doesn’t leak out due to being under tension
70
THE XYLEM
why isn’t transpiration rate = waterproof uptake
- water used for photosynthesis
- makes it turgid
- water is a solvent
71
THE XYLEM
factors affecting transpiration rate
WIND SPEED = increases
- air blows molecules away - increasing WPG
LIGHT INTENSITY = increases
- photosynthesis = stomata open, increases WPG
TEMPERATURE = increases
- water has more kinetic energy and transpires faster, increases WPG
HUMIDITY = decreases
- moist air decreases WPG
72
How are xerophytes adapted to reduce transpiration (5)
1. Rolled leaves = traps layer of humid air = decreasing WPG
2. Sunken stomata
3. Hairy leaves
4. Waxy cuticle = prevents transpiration
5. Low SA:VOL = less stomata on show
73
74
HEAMAGLOBIN
what happpens for small animals
RIGHT SHIFT
- smaller animals have a higher surface area to volume ratio meaning need more oxygen released for respiration due to rapid heat loss
75
HEAMAGLOBIN
whats myglobyn
- higher affinity for oxygen
- only one binding site
- myglobyn only dissasociates at a very low ppO2
eg: when holding breath to delay anaerobic reactions
76
PHLOEM
Evidance for mass flow (3)
1. Radioactive C14 is added to a leaf in a controlled environment, it’s incorporated into the sucrose during photosynthesis. C14 in the sucrose is translocated around the plant. Can detect movement as C14 appears black on X-ray films
2. Using C14 still, can get aphids to feed from stem, cut of body and leave stylets. Sucrose is forced out due to high hydrostatic pressure. Can test how long it takes for it to become radioactive
3. RINGING Phloem vessels located outside of xylem. Cut around the ouside of stem, this halts phloem transport but continues xylem. Tissue above swells due to sucrose build up. Growth stops below the right cuz sucrose hasn’t been translocated
77
78
THE PHLOEM
what is it and whats translocation
phloem = plant tissue that transports photosynthetic products from leaves to other areas
translocation - the process of organic mollecules and mineral ions moving from one area to another
79
THE PHLOEM
description in detail
- made up of seive tube elements, they are thin structures areanged end to end
- their walls are perforated to form seive plates
- they only have a few organelles, dont contain nucleus to aid constant flow
- made up also of compantion cells, these are involved in active transport so contain manyt mitochondria and trasport proteins
80
THE PHLOEM
mass flow theory
1. sucrose formed via photosynthesis and moved from photosynthesising cell ( SOURCE) into a companion cell via facilitated diffusion
2. sucrose moves into the seive tube element via active transport this lowers the water potential
3. water moves from xylem via osmosis, increasing the voume and hydrostatic pressure = MASS FLOW
4. substances will move to areas with a low hydrostatic pressure, water leaves via osmosis
5. sucrose reaches SINKS where sucrose is used up either stored as starch or used for respiration
