Motivation (Emotion for MCQ only)

Question 1

What is Motivation?

Answer 1

Motives : Needs, wants, interests and desires that propel people in certain directions

Motivation : Goal-directed behaviour

Question 2

Explain Drive Theories

Answer 2

• Hypothetical, internal state of mind that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension
• When individuals experience a drive, they are motivated to pursue actions that will lead to drive reduction (internal states pushes someone to act)
• Derived from Walter Cannon’s (1932) observation that organisms seek to maintain homeostasis

Homeostasis : A state of physiological equilibrium

Question 3

Explain Incentive Theories

Answer 3

Incentive : An external goal that has the capacity to motivate behaviour
- Some incentives may reduce drives, other not
- External stimuli pulls someone to act

Question 4

Explain Evolutionary Theories

Answer 4

• Natural selection favours behaviours that maximise reproductive success
• Explains motives (affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, sex drive) in terms of adaptive value

Question 5

What are the Biological Factors in the Regulation of Hunger?

Answer 5

1. Brain Regulation : 2 areas of the hypothalamus play a role in the modulation of hunger (Arcuate nucleus and paraventricular nucleus)
- Neural circuits regulating hunger are massively and reciprocally interconnected

2. Digestive & Hormonal Regulation
- Stomach can send a variety of signals to the brain that inhibits further eating after food consumption
- Variety of hormones contribute to the regulation of hunger (Ghrelin causes stomach contractions & promotes hunger, CCK delivers satiety signals to the brain, reduces hunger. Leptin circulates through bloodstream, provides hypothalamus with information about the body’s fat stores)

Question 6

List the Environmental Factors in the Regulation of Hunger

Answer 6

1. Palatability : Better taste, more consumption
2. Quantity Available : More food, more consumption
3. Variety : Greater variety, more consumption
4. Presence of Others : More people, more consumption
5. Stress : 40-50% of people increase food consumption in times of stress
6. Exposure to Food Cues : Food advertisements and sight/smell of food incites hunger, leads to increased food intake

Question 7

Discuss Learned Preferences & Habits

Answer 7

• Taste preferences are partly a function of learned associations formed through classical conditioning
• Eating habits are also shaped by observational learning
• Food preferences are a matter of exposure (People generally prefer familiar foods, repeated exposures to a new food leads to increased liking)

Question 8

Explain Eating & Weight

Answer 8

Obesity : Condition of being overweight
Body Mass Index (BMI) : Weight (kg) divided by height (m) squared

Question 9

List the Roots of Obesity

Answer 9

1. Genetic Predisposition : Some people inherit a genetic vulnerability to obesity

2. Excessive Eating and Inadequate Exercise : Overweight people eat too much in relation to their level of exercise

3. Inadequate Sleep : Insufficient rest has been associated with weight gain
- Sleep deprivation alters the hormonal balances involved in regulating appetite, eating and satiety

4. Concept of Set Point : Everyone may have a natural point of stability for weight
- Human body is wired to keep weight within a narrow range

Question 10

Outline the 4 Stages of the Human Sexual Response Cycle (Masters & Johnson, 1966, 1970)

Answer 10

1. Excitement Phase : Level of physical arousal escalates rapidly
- Muscle tension, respiration rate, heart rate and blood pressure increase quickly
- Vasocongestion : engorgement of blood vessels

2. Plateau Phase : Physiological arousal continues to build but at a slower pace

3. Orgasm Phase : Sexual arousal reaches its peak intensity and is discharged in a series of muscular contractions

4. Resolution Phase : Physiological changes produced by sexual arousal gradually subside

Question 11

Discuss the Evolutionary Perspective (Parental Investment)

Answer 11

• Refers to what each sex has to invest to produce and nurture offspring

Male & Female Differences :
Male - Little investment beyond copulation
Female - 9 months pregnancy + caring for offspring

Behavioural Outcomes :
Males - Mate selection (youth, attractiveness, promiscuity)
Females - Mate selection (income, status, little interest in uncommitted sex)

Question 12

Explain the Achievement Motive (McClelland, 1985; McClelland et al., 1953)

Answer 12

• The need to master difficult challenges, to outperform others and meet high standards of excellence

Question 13

Discuss the Individual Differences in the Need for Achievement

Answer 13

• Investigators measure participants’ need for achievement with some variant of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
  TAT : Projective test that requires subjects to respond to vague, ambiguous stimuli in ways that may reveal personal motives and traits

Question 14

Discuss the Situational Determinants of Achievement Behaviour (Atkinson, 1974, 1981, 1992)

Answer 14

• The tendency to pursue achievement in a particular situation depends on the strength of one’s motivation to achieve success, one’s estimate of the probability of success for the task and the incentive value of success