Motivation, Emotion, and Personality Flashcards
Motivation
A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.
Instinct
A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.
Physiological Need
A basic bodily requirement
Drive-Reduction Theory
The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.
Homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.
Incentive
A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.
Arousal Theory
The arousal theory of motivation states that motivation is dictated by specific levels of “arousal”, which in psychology represents mental alertness. People have different levels of optimal arousal and are motivated to take actions that help them achieve their optimum level.
Yerkes-Dodson Law
The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active. From top to bottom of the pyramid: Self Actualization (desire to become the most one can be), Esteem (self-respect, status, etc.), Love and Belonging (friendship, intimacy, family, etc.), Safety Needs (personal security, health, etc.), and Physiological Needs (air, water, food, shelter, etc.).
Self-Actualization
Self-actualization, in psychology, a concept regarding the process by which an individual reaches his or her full potential. It was originally introduced by Kurt Goldstein, a physician specializing in neuroanatomy and psychiatry in the early half of the 20th century.
Self-Transcendence
According to Maslow, self-transcendence brings the individual what he termed “peak experiences” in which they transcend their own personal concerns and see from a higher perspective. These experiences often bring strong positive emotions like joy, peace, and a well-developed sense of awareness. At the top of Maslow’s Pyramid.
Glucose
The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.
Insulin (Hunger Hormone)
Hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose. (Decreases Appetite)
Ghrelin (Hunger Hormone)
Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain. (Increases Appetite)
Orexin (Hunger Hormone)
Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus. (Increases Appetite)
Leptin (Hunger Hormone)
Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger. (Decreases Appetite)
PYY (Hunger Hormone)
Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain. (Decreases Appetite)
Hypothalamus
It performs various body maintenance functions, including control of hunger. Blood vessels supply the hypothalamus, enabling it to respond to our current blood chemistry as well as to incoming neural information about the body’s state. “The lat makes the rat fat. “ - Ellis
Set Point
The point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set. When body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight.
Basal Metabolic Rate
The body’s resting rate of energy output.
Obesity
Obesity is a condition marked by excess accumulation of body fat.
Asexual
Having no sexual attraction to others.
Testorone
The most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.
Estrogen
Sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. Estrogen levels peak during ovulation. In nonhuman mammals, this promotes sexual receptivity.
Sexual Response Cycle
The four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
Refractory Period
In human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm.
Affiliation Need
The need for affiliation (N-Affil) is a term that was popularized by David McClelland and describes a person’s need to feel a sense of involvement and “belonging” within a social group.
Ostracism
Being ignored, excluded, and/or rejected signals a threat for which reflexive detection in the form of pain and distress is adaptive for survival. Brief ostracism episodes result in sadness and anger and threaten fundamental needs. Individuals then act to fortify or replenish their thwarted need or needs.
Achievement Motivation
Achievement motivation is defined as an individual’s ability to building up their skills and behaviors so that they can tap into their highest potential. An achievement motivation example would be an individual working toward becoming a better public speaker.
Grit
A personality trait characterized by perseverance and passion for achieving long-term goals. Grit entails working strenuously to overcome challenges and maintaining effort and interest over time despite failures, adversities, and plateaus in progress.
Emotion
A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.
James-Lange Theory
The theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion-arousing stimulus: stimulus to arousal to emotion.
Cannon-Bard Theory
The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion states that stimulating events trigger feelings and physical reactions that occur at the same time. For example, seeing a snake might prompt both the feeling of fear (an emotional response) and a racing heartbeat (a physical reaction).
Two-Factor Theory
The Schacther-Singer Theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.
The Spillover Effect
Spillover Effect refers to the tendency of one person’s emotion to affect how other people around them feel.
Polygraph
A polygraph test–popularly known as a lie detector test–is a machine that measures a person’s physiological responses when they respond to questions.
Facial Feedback Effect
The facial feedback hypothesis suggests that individuals’ emotional experiences are influenced by their facial expressions. For example, smiling should typically make individuals feel happier, and frowning should make them feel sadder.
Behavior Feedback Effect
The tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Display Rules
Display rules determine how we act and to what extent an emotion is expressed in any given situation. They are often used to protect one’s own self-image or those of another person. The understanding of display rules is a complex, multifaceted task.
Stress
The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.
Motivational Conflicts Theory
This theory, proposed by psychologist Kurt Lewin, suggests that individuals are motivated to resolve conflicts that can be categorized into three types: approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, and approach-avoidance.
General Adaption Syndrome (GAS)
Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases - alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
Tend and Befriend Response
Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).
Health Psychology
A subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.
Psychoneuroimmunology
The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.
Coronary Heart Disease
The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries.
Type A vs Type B
Type A: Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.
Type B: Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people.
Catharsis
In psychology, the idea that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges.
Feel-Good, Do-Good Phenomenon
The feel good-do good phenomenon refers to the tendency for people to be more willing to help or aid others when they feel good about themselves or are already in a good mood.
Positive Psychology
Positive Psychology is the scientific study of human flourishing, and an applied approach to optimal functioning. It has also been defined as the study of the strengths and virtues that enable individuals, communities and organisations to thrive.
Subjective Well-Being
Subjective well-being (SWB) refers to how people experience and evaluate their lives and specific domains and activities in their lives.
Adaptation-Level Phenomenon
Adaptation-Level Phenomenon is the tendency people have to quickly adapt to a new situation, until that situation becomes the norm.
Relative Deprivation
Relative deprivation is the belief that a person will feel deprived or entitled to something based on the comparison to someone else.
Abraham Maslow
Known for his hierarchy of needs theory, which suggests that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy from basic physiological needs to self-actualization, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-fulfillment and personal growth in motivation.
Alfred Kinsey
Renowned for his groundbreaking research on human sexuality, Kinsey’s work revolutionized the understanding of sexual behavior and challenged societal norms regarding human sexuality.
Masters and Johnson
William Masters and Virginia Johnson were pioneers in the study of human sexuality and sexual response. Their research laid the foundation for understanding the physiological and psychological aspects of human sexual behavior.
Robert Zajonc
Contributed significantly to the understanding of the role of emotion and cognition, particularly in social psychology. His work highlighted the importance of affective processes in decision-making and social behavior.
Joseph LeDoux
Known for his research on the neural mechanisms of emotion, LeDoux’s work focused on the amygdala’s role in processing emotional information and its implications for emotional responses and behavior.
Richard Lazarus
Noted for his cognitive-mediational theory of emotion, which emphasizes the role of cognitive appraisal in determining emotional experiences. His work has influenced our understanding of stress, coping, and emotion regulation.
Paul Ekman
Renowned for his research on facial expressions and emotions, Ekman’s work identified universal facial expressions of emotion and contributed to the understanding of nonverbal communication and emotional expression.
Kurt Lewin
Considered the founder of social psychology, Lewin’s field theory emphasized the importance of understanding individuals within their social contexts. His work on motivation, group dynamics, and social change has had a profound impact on psychology.
Hans Selye
Known for his research on stress and the body’s response to stressors, Selye’s work led to the development of the general adaptation syndrome model, which describes the body’s physiological responses to stress.
Sigmund Freud
Often referred to as the father of psychoanalysis, Freud’s theories laid the groundwork for understanding the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and the role of early childhood experiences in shaping personality.
Alfred Adler
Founder of individual psychology, Adler’s work focused on the importance of social and familial influences on personality development. He introduced concepts such as the inferiority complex and birth order theory.
Karen Horney
Known for her theories on neurosis and personality development, Horney emphasized the role of social and cultural factors in shaping personality. She challenged Freudian psychoanalysis and introduced the concept of basic anxiety.
Carl Jung
Renowned for his theories on the collective unconscious and archetypes, Jung expanded the scope of psychoanalysis to include spiritual and cultural dimensions. His work has influenced depth psychology, mythology, and spirituality.
Carl Rogers
Pioneer of humanistic psychology, Rogers emphasized the importance of self-actualization and personal growth in psychological well-being. His client-centered therapy focused on creating a supportive and empathetic therapeutic environment.
Personality
An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.
Psychodynamic Theories
Theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is a set of psychological theories and methods of therapy founded by Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis revolves around the belief that everyone has unconscious thoughts, feelings, desires, and memories. Psychoanalysis therapy is used to release repressed emotions and experiences. It attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts.
Unconscious
According to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
Free Association
In psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.
Id
A reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.
Ego
The largely conscious, “executive” part of the personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasures instead of pain.
Superego
The part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgement (the conscience) and for future aspirations.
Psychosexual Stages
The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.
Oedipus Complex
According to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for rival father.
Electra Complex
The Electra complex is a psychoanalytic term used to describe a girl’s sense of competition with her mother for the affection of her father.
Identification
The process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parent’s values into their developing superegos.
Fixation
According to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.
Defense Mechanisms
In psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.
Repression
In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Collective Unconscious
Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history.
Projective Tests
A personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous images designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.
Rorschach Inkblot Test
The most widely used projective test. A set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
Terror-Mangement Theory
How that fear influences human thinking and behavior is the focus of terror management theory (TMT) research. According to TMT, death anxiety drives people to adopt worldviews that protect their self-esteem, worthiness, and sustainability and allow them to believe that they play an important role in a meaningful world.
Humanistic Theories
Humanistic psychology focuses on each individual’s potential and stresses the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency.
Unconditional Positive Regard
Unconditional positive regard is a term used by humanist psychologist Carl Rogers to describe a technique used in his non-directive, client-centered therapy. 1. According to Rogers, unconditional positive regard involves showing complete support and acceptance of a person no matter what that person says or does.
Self-Concept
Self-concept is an overarching idea we have about who we are—physically, emotionally, socially, spiritually, and in terms of any other aspects that make up who we are (Neill, 2005). We form and regulate our self-concept as we grow, based on the knowledge we have about ourselves.
Traits
A characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in certain ways, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports.
Big 5 Personality Traits
- Openness to Experience: Openness to experience reflects a person’s receptiveness to new ideas, creativity, and willingness to explore novel experiences.
- Conscientiousness: Conscientiousness relates to an individual’s organization, reliability, and diligence in pursuing goals and responsibilities.
- Extraversion: Extraversion describes a person’s sociability, assertiveness, and enjoyment of social interactions and stimulation.
- Agreeableness: Agreeableness refers to the degree of kindness, empathy, and cooperativeness a person displays in their interactions with others.
- Neuroticism (Emotional Stability): Neuroticism indicates a person’s tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anxiety and moodiness, and their level of emotional resilience.
Personality Inventory
A questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
The most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
Empirically Derived Test
A test created by selecting from a pool of items those that discriminate between groups.
Person-Situation Controversy
The person–situation debate in personality psychology refers to the controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining a person’s behavior.
Social-Cognitive Perspective
An approach to understanding behavior that emphasizes the interaction between individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and the social environment.
Behavioral Approach
A psychological perspective that focuses on observable behaviors and the environmental factors that influence them, often utilizing principles of conditioning.
Reciprocal Determinism
The idea that behavior is influenced by the interaction between personal factors, environmental factors, and the individual’s own behaviors.
Self
The individual’s perception and understanding of themselves, including their thoughts, feelings, and identity.
Spotlight Effect
The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others notice and evaluate our appearance, behavior, or performance in social situations.
Self-Esteem
The subjective evaluation of one’s own worth or value, encompassing feelings of self-worth and self-respect.
Self-Efficacy
Belief in one’s ability to successfully accomplish tasks and achieve goals in specific situations.
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors while attributing failures to external factors, protecting one’s self-esteem.
Narcissism
Excessive self-focus and a grandiose sense of self-importance, often accompanied by a lack of empathy and a need for admiration.
Individualism
A cultural orientation that emphasizes the importance of individual rights, freedom, and self-expression.
Collectivism
A cultural orientation that prioritizes the needs, goals, and identity of the group or community over individual desires and achievements.
Displacement
Redirecting an emotion from its original source to a less threatening target.
Sublimation
Channeling socially unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behavior.
Reaction Formation
Expressing the opposite of one’s true feelings to mask uncomfortable emotions.
Projection
Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others.
Rationalization
Creating logical explanations to justify or excuse behaviors or feelings.
Repression
Unconsciously pushing distressing thoughts or memories out of conscious awareness.
Regression
Reverting to earlier, more childlike stages of behavior in response to stress.
Procrastination
Delaying tasks despite knowing the negative consequences.
Identification
Adopting characteristics or traits of someone else to enhance self-esteem.
Denial
Refusing to accept reality or acknowledge the truth of a situation.
