Motivation Flashcards
Define motivation
Motivation is often described as an unobservable force that directs, energizes, and sustains behavior over time and across changing circumstances. It can be viewed in terms of direction, intensity, and persistence.
It can also be defined as the factors influencing the direction, effort and persistence of behavior that are NOT due to other forces like ability or situational forces.
Motivation is widely recognized as a PROCESS.
(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011)
What are four themes (which represent basic assumptions) across motivation theories?
BAGD
1) Behavior is goal-directed.
2) Approach or avoidance underlies all motivation tendencies.
3) Goals are hierarchically arranged.
4) Discrepancy reduction is a basic, universal process.
Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011
Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011
This is a handbook chapter on Work Motivation.
It focuses on it from a process perspective, starting with individual and situational antecedents, moving to self-regulatory processes involved in pursuing an action goal, and considering the effects of motivation on behavior and well-being. They also discuss difficulties employees have and potential interventions aimed at improving motivation.
How is motivation made visible/where can it be seen?
In the:
1) choices people make among goes to pursue (i.e., direction)
2) the amount of effort they put forth toward goal attainment (i.e., the vigor, intensity, or amplitude of action), 3) the amount of time they invest in goal pursuit (i.e., duration or persistence of action).
Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011
What kinds of things shape motivation?
Motivation for a given activity at a particular point in time can be shaped by an infinite number of factors, including biological processes, needs, values, group norms, personality, emotions, job characteristics, cultural context, and many others.
Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011
What are goals?
Internal representations of desired end states (Austin and Vancouver, 1996; Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011). These end states are shaped by person and situation factors. It is an assumption across motivation theories that behavior is goal-directed, and that people have many goals, which are hierarchically arranged.
What are action goals?
Mid-level goals that guide conscious processes and behavior at a given point in time (Austin and Vancouver, 1996). It is an assumption across motivation theories that people have many goals, which are hierarchically arranged. Most theories emphasize action goals.
What are superordinate goals?
These are higher in the goal hierarchy and span longer time frames. Superordinate refers to them being based in personality, needs, values, and desired selves (Austin and Vancouver, 1996).
What are subordinate goals?
Goals that are lower in the goal hierarchy and operate on a faster time frame (Lord and Levy, 1994). For example, motor movements, muscle tension.
What are 2 implications of the existence of a goal hierarchy?
1) That any single goal does not exist in a vacuum, but rather can only be fully understood in relation to both higher and lower level goals.
2) That goals can exist at the same level (evident in the existence of goal conflict)
(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011)
What is the basic determinant of motivated action?
The existence of a discrepancy between one’s current state and a desired state. Discrepancies are unpleasant, which leads to arousal and attempts to reduce the discrepancies via the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior. Effective functioning in daily life requires a constant comparison between one’s current state and a desired state (goal) and to take action against any discrepancies.
(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011; Locke and Latham, 1990)
What happens when there is a discrepancy at a higher level of the goal hierarchy (e.g., needs?)
It can shape goal choice at the lower levels (i.e., action goals), which creates a new discrepancy between one’s current state and the newly selected goal. And that discrepancy must be reduced through action.
(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011; Carver and Scheier, 1998)
What is the assumption regarding approach and avoidance?
All goals are oriented toward approaching a pleasant state and avoiding an unpleasant state (Austin and Vancouver, 1996) and it is supported across lots of motivation research areas. Whether a goal is directed primarily at one or the other (approaching something or avoiding something) has implications for the quality of their goal-directed activities, task strategies adopted, the focus of attention, and outcomes such as performance and well-being.
(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011)
Describe Diefendorff and Chandler’s (2011) model of work motivation.
It includes
4 sets of influences on action goals:
1) Distal external (i.e., org culture and climate (bc if feel like a fit, more motivated); compensation system; national culture (values and norms))
2) Proximal external (i.e., job characteristics, equity and fairness, assigned goal characteristics, social influences)
3) Distal person (i.e., needs/motives, values, gender, personality)
4) Proximal person (i.e., affect, commitment, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, self-efficacy
An employees’s motivation for pursuing a particular goal (i.e., running a sales meeting) may be shaped by proximal person factors, such as their confidence in attaining it, value placed on attaining it and outcomes, extent to which the task is intrinsically or extrinsically derived, etc), but then those event level influences may be derived from and shaped by more distal, enduring aspects of the situation (i.e., job characteristics, company policies, org culture) and the person (personality, gender, values, needs).
Pursuit of an action goal is divided into within-episode phases of goal setting and goal striving and between-episode phase of goal revision. Feedback informs revision. Other processes involved with goal setting and striving.
The pursuit of action goals influences work behaviors and well-being, mediating much of the influences of the antecedents on outcomes.
Relationship between org culture and motivation? climate and motivation?
Culture:
Not much empirical research establishing a direct link, but perceiving one is a good fit with culture likely leads to greater motivation and performance.
Climate:
May better predict motivation bc climate is more immediate. Focused climates especially predict motivation. For example, safety climate predicts individual safety motivation and behaviors (Neal and Griffin, 2006)
What is the relationship between compensation/pay and motivation?
Diefendorff and Chandler 2011 have it as a distal external factor influencing motivation.
May be explained by reinforcement theory, which states behavior is determined by its consequences (Skinner, 1969).
Research supports the idea that pay for performance could work. However, it’s more nuanced.
- Metas have shown that pay for performance improves performance on simple, boring tasks but not on complex or interesting tasks.
- Pay for performance plans associated with lower well being; even worse when jobs are monotonous
Rynes et al (2004) make practical recommendations for employers, such as not being way above or below the market on compensation, and realizing that the best employees want strong pay-performance relationships.
What personality predictors influence motivation?
Judge and Ilies (2002) meta found that neuroticism was negatively related to performance motivation (emotional stability is opposite end of neuroticism); conscientiousness positively related to it.
Other research has found that internal locus of control and optimistic view of life are positively related to motivation.
Describe path-goal theory
If a worker sees high productivity as a path to a goal they have (i.e., increased pay or power), they will become a higher producer. If they see less productivity as a path to rewards (i.e., less stress, more time with family), they’ll lower productivity. The first motivation theory to introduce the idea of choice.
Georgopoulos et al., 1957
Describe VIE theory (aka Expectancy theory).
VIE = valence, instrumentality, expectancy theory
Vroom, 1964
The individual is a calculator that estimates probabilities before making a decision to take action.
Valence: certain things will attract people (money) and others will repel people (uninteresting work)
Instrumentality: the degree to which one would receive the expected outcome/rewards if they perform (there can be many at the same time - i.e., promotion comes with increased pay but also unpaid overtime; the cost benefit analysis leads to the decision making)
Expectancy - the belief that increased effort will lead to successful performance (can I do it? am I in control of the successful performance?)
Application: 1) Motivate employees by offering outcomes with high valence 2) Clarify instrumentalities by letting them know high performance will come with positive outcomes, 3) Clarify expectancies by making it clear to employees that hard work will lead to higher performance.
Research has found limited support for the model; basically people don’t go through calculations to this length for all decisions. It also ignored emotion and personality.
What is dissonance theory and what motivation theory is it central to?
Festinger, 1957
Holds that people experience tension when they hold incompatible thoughts. Assumes people always seek some sense of balance (absence of tension) and that they will direct their behavior toward reducing tension resulting from incompatible thoughts.
Central to equity theory.
What is equity theory
Adams 1965
People look at their world in terms of comparing inputs and outcomes. They calculate what they are putting in their work and what they get out of it, and compare it to the ratio of others. If there’s tension, effort will go into reducing it in some way.
This is another person as calculator theory, like VIE, but this one includes a social component (comparison), while VIE did not, was all internal based calculations.
Scholars argue that equity theory is now just subsumed under larger justice and fairness perception research. (Part of the older/classic theories of motivation)
Describe goal setting theory’s main proposition and mechanisms through which goals impact performance.
Locke and Latham, 2002
A goal is seen as a motivational force, and people who set specific, difficult goals perform better than people who set “do your best” goals or no goal at all.
Performance is highest when goals are specific vs do your best, difficult, assigned using a “sell” rather than just told, and when coupled with performance feedback and high goal commitment.
Goals are thought to aid performance because they direct attention to goal-relevant activities, mobilize and sustain effort, and promote the use of task-relevant knowledge
After performance, there is a feedback loop that’s important, as it then allows the person to adjust their states (effort, attention, etc). This allows them to increase effort if needed (underperforming) or vice versa. This adjustment happens because the person is committed to the goal.
Empirical research has been supportive.
Early research focused on simple tasks so to stay relevant newer research is looking at complex tasks in research designs.
What is the difference between goal acceptance and goal commitment?
Goal setting theory includes both
Goal commitment is broad and can include assigned and self-set goals.
Goal acceptance refers to goals that have been assigned by others (i.e., supervisors).
When individuals are free to revise assigned goals, they can become self-set goals, which helps transform what was acceptance to commitment.
Describe action control theory.
Action control theory holds that as people move closer to a goal, there is a discrepancy reduction feedback loop that they use to monitor their progress called an action loop. At the same time, there is a secondary feedback loop that monitors rate of progress toward the goal. The rate of progress can induce positive or negative emotions, which can influence whether they stay committed to the goal or disengage. Positive rate of change compared to a reference leads to positive affect, and vice versa.
Control theories are based on the principle of a feedback loop. They assume an individual compares the standard (i.e., a goal) to actual outcome and adjusts behavior to bring the outcome in agreement with the standard.
Similar to goal setting theory’s feedback loop.
(Carver and Scheier original action control; Vancouver, 2005 review of control theories)
What are 3 major methods of goal setting and which is best?
1) Assigning them
2) Asking people who will receive the goals to participate in setting them
3) Asking people to set their own goals.
Research indicates that participative goal setting is most effective, although assigned goals can be effective also if they are “sold” rather than simply dictated.
“Difficult goal” - what does that mean specifically?
Can be determined by comparing to one’s own performance or others’.
One that could be achieved no more than 10-20% of the time that the person attempts it, or by no more than 10-20% of the people who attempt it (so, top 10-20% of people meet some score.)
Should rewards be contingent on goal accomplishment?
Scholars generally agree that when goals are of medium difficulty, rewards are appropriate for goal accomplishment. If goals are very difficult, the person should be rewarded for partial goal completion, otherwise goals will become unattractive over time (bc viewed as unattainable).
Might also be appropriate to increase the reward as the person gets closer to the difficult goal.
All or nothing goals may lead to underperformance (easy goals) or giving up (difficult goals).
When should individual vs group goals be used?
Mitchell et al 2000
Depends on nature of the task.
If task requires interdependence and cooperation, group goals may be best. If work is independent and workers are sole contributors, individual goals may be best.
But need to consider culture - in collectivist cultures it may be offensive to use goal setting programs.
How did motivation theory evolve over time?
First were the dissonance and equity theories. Equity became subsumed under justice. Goal setting theory was the first of the modern.
Needs>Motives>Goals>Performance (Locke and Latham, 1996)
This led scholars to consider more levels of explanation (mediators, etc), while using goals as important parts of their theories.
This ushered in theories of self-regulation (i.e., control theory), because it was about how to understand the feedback loop (of goal setting) in depth. Someone may abandon a goal, or revise a goal, or change goal hierarchy. What’s behind those intentions/decisions? Control theories helped in that area (which is compatible with self-regulation).
Then action theory
Then self-efficacy.
Goal orientation
FINISH DEFINING
Empirical:
Goal orientation predicted performance above and beyond cog ability and personality (Payne et al., 2007 meta)
Define self-regulation and how the theory explains strategies individuals can increase their motivation and performance?
Empirical finding?
Self-regulation: process by which individuals take in information about behavior and make adjustments or changes based on that information. These changes, in turn, affect subsequent behavior (ie., strategies and goal commitment).
Individuals can seek feedback and engage in constructive change to increase work motivation and performance. It’s an active process.
Diefendorff and Chandler (2011) note that self-regulatory processes influence goal setting and striving in order to reduce discrepancies.
What is self-efficacy, what is its role in the motivation process? How is it increased?
The belief in one’s capability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal (Bandura, 1986).
It is an antecedent to motivation (proximal personal; Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011).
It can be increased by modeling others, coaching by others, stress reduction, and having mastery experiences.
What are 3 important modern motivation theories?
1) Goal setting theory (Locke and Latham, 2002) - introduced goals; goals direct attention, and intensity, strategies, effort are needed; difficult goals important.
2) Control theories (Vancouver, 2005) - all about feedback loop and controlling one’s efforts based on feedback. These theories all use self-regulation as core concept.
3) Action theory (Frese and Zapf, 1994) - very close to goal setting / feedback model; actions toward goals after planning, and then use feedback to adjust future plans.
Older theories are the dissonance and equity theories.
What is action theory?
Theory that includes broad consideration of the role of intention in motivated behavior as well as connection between intention and action. Most popular among German applied psychs (Frese and Zapf, 1994; Gollwitzer, 1993). Also known as Rubicon theory.
It’s about how intention turns into action, which assumes that there is a goal intention and implementation intention as two separate things. Goals are more likely to be achieved when both the goal intention AND implementation intention are present.
Action process involves a goal first, then consideration of events that may occur, then development of alternative plans, the selection of a plan, then action, then comparing what was achieved with what was desired (feedback), which informs future goal development.
Their “action process” is virtually identical to the goal setting and feedback model.
It may have followed the idea of self efficacy (1986) because this theory is about INTENTION and efficacy is a part of that/influences that.
What is core self evaluation and how is it related to motivation?
GELS: Core self evaluation is a combination of: -Generalized self-efficacy -Emotional stability -(internal) Locus of control -Self-esteem
Judge et al 2002 found that there may be certain trait requirements for motivational interventions to work rather than some people just being naturally more motivated.
There may be this competency (rather than saying a “trait”) that is at the heart of motivated behavior.
How can we measure motivation?
Context-specific:
- number and difficulty of goals accepted
- strength of belief that hard work will yield rewards
Personality
- Core self-evaluations as a competency needed for certain motivational interventions to work
- Others say conscientiousness and emotional stability (low neuroticism)
Measures
-Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ) - Kanfer et al, 2001 - general performance motivation as a trait measure - similar to Core Self Eval but more focus on achievement striving
What are two types of interventions for motivation?
1) Contingent rewards - better for individual behaviors, not groups
2) Job enrichment (work design) - a motivational approach that involves increasing responsibility and interest level of jobs in order to increase the motivation and job satisfaction of employees performing those jobs.
What is job enrichment and what does research suggest in terms of its effects?
Job enrichment (work design/JCM) is a motivational approach that involves increasing responsibility and interest level of jobs in order to increase the motivation and job satisfaction of employees performing those jobs.
JCM measure (Hackman and Oldham, 1976) can be used to score jobs on their potential to motivate an individual. They also argued that individuals must be focused on higher order needs for the characteristics to have any effect (growth needs strength).
As an intervention, it would focus on increasing levels of the 5 JCM characteristics (FATTV)
Goals are seen as the most immediate antecedents of behavior (per goal setting theory). But what are antecedents of goals?
Diefendorff and Chandler (2011) describe four categories of antecedents to goals:
- distal external: i.e., company policy, national culture, $ systems
- proximal external: i.e., job characteristics, social influences, equity/justice perceptions, assigned goals
- distal personal: i.e., personality, needs (SDT), values, gender
- proximal personal: i.e., commitment, self-efficacy, goal commitment, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, and affect
Along what dimensions do goals differ?
Importance Difficulty Specificity Temporal Range Consciousness Complexity
Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011
To what degree must goals be conscious?
Diefendorff and Chandler (2011) note that much of behavior does not require conscious control, and unconscious goals at different levels of the hierarchy can influence goal selection through spreading activation.
This can happen though priming and spreading of activation.
What are the outcomes of motivation?
Diefendorff and Chandler (2011) note that motivation relates to: Performance (+) Prosocial behaviors (+) Safety (+) Creativity (+) CWB (-)
What is priming?
Priming occurs when exposure to stimuli in one’s environment activates a non-conscious goal (Schmidt et al., 2013)
How does goal activation occur?
Goal activation occurs through a process known as spreading activation. When a goal is activated, related goals and knowledge are also likely to be activated. At the same time, other goals can be inhibited (goal inhibition).
Supported by research. (Schmidt et al., 2013)
