Motivation

Question 1

Define motivation

Answer 1

Motivation is often described as an unobservable force that directs, energizes, and sustains behavior over time and across changing circumstances. It can be viewed in terms of direction, intensity, and persistence.

It can also be defined as the factors influencing the direction, effort and persistence of behavior that are NOT due to other forces like ability or situational forces.

Motivation is widely recognized as a PROCESS.

(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011)

Question 2

What are four themes (which represent basic assumptions) across motivation theories?

Answer 2

BAGD
1) Behavior is goal-directed.
2) Approach or avoidance underlies all motivation tendencies.
3) Goals are hierarchically arranged.
4) Discrepancy reduction is a basic, universal process.
Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011

Question 3

Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011

Answer 3

This is a handbook chapter on Work Motivation.
It focuses on it from a process perspective, starting with individual and situational antecedents, moving to self-regulatory processes involved in pursuing an action goal, and considering the effects of motivation on behavior and well-being. They also discuss difficulties employees have and potential interventions aimed at improving motivation.

Question 4

How is motivation made visible/where can it be seen?

Answer 4

In the:
1) choices people make among goes to pursue (i.e., direction)
2) the amount of effort they put forth toward goal attainment (i.e., the vigor, intensity, or amplitude of action), 3) the amount of time they invest in goal pursuit (i.e., duration or persistence of action).
Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011

Question 5

What kinds of things shape motivation?

Answer 5

Motivation for a given activity at a particular point in time can be shaped by an infinite number of factors, including biological processes, needs, values, group norms, personality, emotions, job characteristics, cultural context, and many others.
Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011

Question 6

What are goals?

Answer 6

Internal representations of desired end states (Austin and Vancouver, 1996; Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011). These end states are shaped by person and situation factors. It is an assumption across motivation theories that behavior is goal-directed, and that people have many goals, which are hierarchically arranged.

Question 7

What are action goals?

Answer 7

Mid-level goals that guide conscious processes and behavior at a given point in time (Austin and Vancouver, 1996). It is an assumption across motivation theories that people have many goals, which are hierarchically arranged. Most theories emphasize action goals.

Question 8

What are superordinate goals?

Answer 8

These are higher in the goal hierarchy and span longer time frames. Superordinate refers to them being based in personality, needs, values, and desired selves (Austin and Vancouver, 1996).

Question 9

What are subordinate goals?

Answer 9

Goals that are lower in the goal hierarchy and operate on a faster time frame (Lord and Levy, 1994). For example, motor movements, muscle tension.

Question 10

What are 2 implications of the existence of a goal hierarchy?

Answer 10

1) That any single goal does not exist in a vacuum, but rather can only be fully understood in relation to both higher and lower level goals.
2) That goals can exist at the same level (evident in the existence of goal conflict)
(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011)

Question 11

What is the basic determinant of motivated action?

Answer 11

The existence of a discrepancy between one’s current state and a desired state. Discrepancies are unpleasant, which leads to arousal and attempts to reduce the discrepancies via the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior. Effective functioning in daily life requires a constant comparison between one’s current state and a desired state (goal) and to take action against any discrepancies.
(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011; Locke and Latham, 1990)

Question 12

What happens when there is a discrepancy at a higher level of the goal hierarchy (e.g., needs?)

Answer 12

It can shape goal choice at the lower levels (i.e., action goals), which creates a new discrepancy between one’s current state and the newly selected goal. And that discrepancy must be reduced through action.
(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011; Carver and Scheier, 1998)

Question 13

What is the assumption regarding approach and avoidance?

Answer 13

All goals are oriented toward approaching a pleasant state and avoiding an unpleasant state (Austin and Vancouver, 1996) and it is supported across lots of motivation research areas. Whether a goal is directed primarily at one or the other (approaching something or avoiding something) has implications for the quality of their goal-directed activities, task strategies adopted, the focus of attention, and outcomes such as performance and well-being.
(Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011)

Question 14

Describe Diefendorff and Chandler’s (2011) model of work motivation.

Answer 14

It includes
4 sets of influences on action goals:
1) Distal external (i.e., org culture and climate (bc if feel like a fit, more motivated); compensation system; national culture (values and norms))
2) Proximal external (i.e., job characteristics, equity and fairness, assigned goal characteristics, social influences)
3) Distal person (i.e., needs/motives, values, gender, personality)
4) Proximal person (i.e., affect, commitment, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, self-efficacy

An employees’s motivation for pursuing a particular goal (i.e., running a sales meeting) may be shaped by proximal person factors, such as their confidence in attaining it, value placed on attaining it and outcomes, extent to which the task is intrinsically or extrinsically derived, etc), but then those event level influences may be derived from and shaped by more distal, enduring aspects of the situation (i.e., job characteristics, company policies, org culture) and the person (personality, gender, values, needs).

Pursuit of an action goal is divided into within-episode phases of goal setting and goal striving and between-episode phase of goal revision. Feedback informs revision. Other processes involved with goal setting and striving.

The pursuit of action goals influences work behaviors and well-being, mediating much of the influences of the antecedents on outcomes.

Question 15

Relationship between org culture and motivation? climate and motivation?

Answer 15

Culture:
Not much empirical research establishing a direct link, but perceiving one is a good fit with culture likely leads to greater motivation and performance.

Climate:
May better predict motivation bc climate is more immediate. Focused climates especially predict motivation. For example, safety climate predicts individual safety motivation and behaviors (Neal and Griffin, 2006)

Question 16

What is the relationship between compensation/pay and motivation?

Answer 16

Diefendorff and Chandler 2011 have it as a distal external factor influencing motivation.

May be explained by reinforcement theory, which states behavior is determined by its consequences (Skinner, 1969).

Research supports the idea that pay for performance could work. However, it’s more nuanced.

• Metas have shown that pay for performance improves performance on simple, boring tasks but not on complex or interesting tasks.
• Pay for performance plans associated with lower well being; even worse when jobs are monotonous

Rynes et al (2004) make practical recommendations for employers, such as not being way above or below the market on compensation, and realizing that the best employees want strong pay-performance relationships.

Question 17

What personality predictors influence motivation?

Answer 17

Judge and Ilies (2002) meta found that neuroticism was negatively related to performance motivation (emotional stability is opposite end of neuroticism); conscientiousness positively related to it.

Other research has found that internal locus of control and optimistic view of life are positively related to motivation.

Question 18

Describe path-goal theory

Answer 18

If a worker sees high productivity as a path to a goal they have (i.e., increased pay or power), they will become a higher producer. If they see less productivity as a path to rewards (i.e., less stress, more time with family), they’ll lower productivity. The first motivation theory to introduce the idea of choice.

Georgopoulos et al., 1957

Question 19

Describe VIE theory (aka Expectancy theory).

Answer 19

VIE = valence, instrumentality, expectancy theory
Vroom, 1964
The individual is a calculator that estimates probabilities before making a decision to take action.

Valence: certain things will attract people (money) and others will repel people (uninteresting work)

Instrumentality: the degree to which one would receive the expected outcome/rewards if they perform (there can be many at the same time - i.e., promotion comes with increased pay but also unpaid overtime; the cost benefit analysis leads to the decision making)

Expectancy - the belief that increased effort will lead to successful performance (can I do it? am I in control of the successful performance?)

Application: 1) Motivate employees by offering outcomes with high valence 2) Clarify instrumentalities by letting them know high performance will come with positive outcomes, 3) Clarify expectancies by making it clear to employees that hard work will lead to higher performance.

Research has found limited support for the model; basically people don’t go through calculations to this length for all decisions. It also ignored emotion and personality.

Question 20

What is dissonance theory and what motivation theory is it central to?

Answer 20

Festinger, 1957
Holds that people experience tension when they hold incompatible thoughts. Assumes people always seek some sense of balance (absence of tension) and that they will direct their behavior toward reducing tension resulting from incompatible thoughts.

Central to equity theory.

Question 21

What is equity theory

Answer 21

Adams 1965
People look at their world in terms of comparing inputs and outcomes. They calculate what they are putting in their work and what they get out of it, and compare it to the ratio of others. If there’s tension, effort will go into reducing it in some way.
This is another person as calculator theory, like VIE, but this one includes a social component (comparison), while VIE did not, was all internal based calculations.
Scholars argue that equity theory is now just subsumed under larger justice and fairness perception research. (Part of the older/classic theories of motivation)

Question 22

Describe goal setting theory’s main proposition and mechanisms through which goals impact performance.

Answer 22

Locke and Latham, 2002

A goal is seen as a motivational force, and people who set specific, difficult goals perform better than people who set “do your best” goals or no goal at all.

Performance is highest when goals are specific vs do your best, difficult, assigned using a “sell” rather than just told, and when coupled with performance feedback and high goal commitment.

Goals are thought to aid performance because they direct attention to goal-relevant activities, mobilize and sustain effort, and promote the use of task-relevant knowledge

After performance, there is a feedback loop that’s important, as it then allows the person to adjust their states (effort, attention, etc). This allows them to increase effort if needed (underperforming) or vice versa. This adjustment happens because the person is committed to the goal.

Empirical research has been supportive.
Early research focused on simple tasks so to stay relevant newer research is looking at complex tasks in research designs.

Question 23

What is the difference between goal acceptance and goal commitment?

Answer 23

Goal setting theory includes both
Goal commitment is broad and can include assigned and self-set goals.
Goal acceptance refers to goals that have been assigned by others (i.e., supervisors).
When individuals are free to revise assigned goals, they can become self-set goals, which helps transform what was acceptance to commitment.

Question 24

Describe action control theory.

Answer 24

Action control theory holds that as people move closer to a goal, there is a discrepancy reduction feedback loop that they use to monitor their progress called an action loop. At the same time, there is a secondary feedback loop that monitors rate of progress toward the goal. The rate of progress can induce positive or negative emotions, which can influence whether they stay committed to the goal or disengage. Positive rate of change compared to a reference leads to positive affect, and vice versa.

Control theories are based on the principle of a feedback loop. They assume an individual compares the standard (i.e., a goal) to actual outcome and adjusts behavior to bring the outcome in agreement with the standard.

Similar to goal setting theory’s feedback loop.

(Carver and Scheier original action control; Vancouver, 2005 review of control theories)

Question 25

What are 3 major methods of goal setting and which is best?

Answer 25

1) Assigning them 2) Asking people who will receive the goals to participate in setting them 3) Asking people to set their own goals. Research indicates that participative goal setting is most effective, although assigned goals can be effective also if they are "sold" rather than simply dictated.

Question 26

"Difficult goal" - what does that mean specifically?

Answer 26

Can be determined by comparing to one's own performance or others'. One that could be achieved no more than 10-20% of the time that the person attempts it, or by no more than 10-20% of the people who attempt it (so, top 10-20% of people meet some score.)

Question 27

Should rewards be contingent on goal accomplishment?

Answer 27

Scholars generally agree that when goals are of medium difficulty, rewards are appropriate for goal accomplishment. If goals are very difficult, the person should be rewarded for partial goal completion, otherwise goals will become unattractive over time (bc viewed as unattainable). Might also be appropriate to increase the reward as the person gets closer to the difficult goal. All or nothing goals may lead to underperformance (easy goals) or giving up (difficult goals).

Question 28

When should individual vs group goals be used?

Answer 28

Mitchell et al 2000 Depends on nature of the task. If task requires interdependence and cooperation, group goals may be best. If work is independent and workers are sole contributors, individual goals may be best. But need to consider culture - in collectivist cultures it may be offensive to use goal setting programs.

Question 29

How did motivation theory evolve over time?

Answer 29

First were the dissonance and equity theories. Equity became subsumed under justice. Goal setting theory was the first of the modern. Needs>Motives>Goals>Performance (Locke and Latham, 1996) This led scholars to consider more levels of explanation (mediators, etc), while using goals as important parts of their theories. This ushered in theories of self-regulation (i.e., control theory), because it was about how to understand the feedback loop (of goal setting) in depth. Someone may abandon a goal, or revise a goal, or change goal hierarchy. What's behind those intentions/decisions? Control theories helped in that area (which is compatible with self-regulation). Then action theory Then self-efficacy.

Question 30

Goal orientation

Answer 30

FINISH DEFINING Empirical: Goal orientation predicted performance above and beyond cog ability and personality (Payne et al., 2007 meta)

Question 31

Define self-regulation and how the theory explains strategies individuals can increase their motivation and performance? Empirical finding?

Answer 31

Self-regulation: process by which individuals take in information about behavior and make adjustments or changes based on that information. These changes, in turn, affect subsequent behavior (ie., strategies and goal commitment). Individuals can seek feedback and engage in constructive change to increase work motivation and performance. It's an active process. Diefendorff and Chandler (2011) note that self-regulatory processes influence goal setting and striving in order to reduce discrepancies.

Question 32

What is self-efficacy, what is its role in the motivation process? How is it increased?

Answer 32

The belief in one's capability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal (Bandura, 1986). It is an antecedent to motivation (proximal personal; Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011). It can be increased by modeling others, coaching by others, stress reduction, and having mastery experiences.

Question 33

What are 3 important modern motivation theories?

Answer 33

1) Goal setting theory (Locke and Latham, 2002) - introduced goals; goals direct attention, and intensity, strategies, effort are needed; difficult goals important. 2) Control theories (Vancouver, 2005) - all about feedback loop and controlling one's efforts based on feedback. These theories all use self-regulation as core concept. 3) Action theory (Frese and Zapf, 1994) - very close to goal setting / feedback model; actions toward goals after planning, and then use feedback to adjust future plans. Older theories are the dissonance and equity theories.

Question 34

What is action theory?

Answer 34

Theory that includes broad consideration of the role of intention in motivated behavior as well as connection between intention and action. Most popular among German applied psychs (Frese and Zapf, 1994; Gollwitzer, 1993). Also known as Rubicon theory. It's about how intention turns into action, which assumes that there is a goal intention and implementation intention as two separate things. Goals are more likely to be achieved when both the goal intention AND implementation intention are present. Action process involves a goal first, then consideration of events that may occur, then development of alternative plans, the selection of a plan, then action, then comparing what was achieved with what was desired (feedback), which informs future goal development. Their "action process" is virtually identical to the goal setting and feedback model. It may have followed the idea of self efficacy (1986) because this theory is about INTENTION and efficacy is a part of that/influences that.

Question 35

What is core self evaluation and how is it related to motivation?

Answer 35

``` GELS: Core self evaluation is a combination of: -Generalized self-efficacy -Emotional stability -(internal) Locus of control -Self-esteem ``` Judge et al 2002 found that there may be certain trait requirements for motivational interventions to work rather than some people just being naturally more motivated. There may be this competency (rather than saying a "trait") that is at the heart of motivated behavior.

Question 36

How can we measure motivation?

Answer 36

Context-specific: - number and difficulty of goals accepted - strength of belief that hard work will yield rewards Personality - Core self-evaluations as a competency needed for certain motivational interventions to work - Others say conscientiousness and emotional stability (low neuroticism) Measures -Motivational Trait Questionnaire (MTQ) - Kanfer et al, 2001 - general performance motivation as a trait measure - similar to Core Self Eval but more focus on achievement striving

Question 37

What are two types of interventions for motivation?

Answer 37

1) Contingent rewards - better for individual behaviors, not groups 2) Job enrichment (work design) - a motivational approach that involves increasing responsibility and interest level of jobs in order to increase the motivation and job satisfaction of employees performing those jobs.

Question 38

What is job enrichment and what does research suggest in terms of its effects?

Answer 38

Job enrichment (work design/JCM) is a motivational approach that involves increasing responsibility and interest level of jobs in order to increase the motivation and job satisfaction of employees performing those jobs. JCM measure (Hackman and Oldham, 1976) can be used to score jobs on their potential to motivate an individual. They also argued that individuals must be focused on higher order needs for the characteristics to have any effect (growth needs strength). As an intervention, it would focus on increasing levels of the 5 JCM characteristics (FATTV)

Question 39

Goals are seen as the most immediate antecedents of behavior (per goal setting theory). But what are antecedents of goals?

Answer 39

Diefendorff and Chandler (2011) describe four categories of antecedents to goals: - distal external: i.e., company policy, national culture, $ systems - proximal external: i.e., job characteristics, social influences, equity/justice perceptions, assigned goals - distal personal: i.e., personality, needs (SDT), values, gender - proximal personal: i.e., commitment, self-efficacy, goal commitment, intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, and affect

Question 40

Along what dimensions do goals differ?

Answer 40

``` Importance Difficulty Specificity Temporal Range Consciousness Complexity ``` Diefendorff and Chandler, 2011

Question 41

To what degree must goals be conscious?

Answer 41

Diefendorff and Chandler (2011) note that much of behavior does not require conscious control, and unconscious goals at different levels of the hierarchy can influence goal selection through spreading activation. This can happen though priming and spreading of activation.

Question 42

What are the outcomes of motivation?

Answer 42

``` Diefendorff and Chandler (2011) note that motivation relates to: Performance (+) Prosocial behaviors (+) Safety (+) Creativity (+) CWB (-) ```

Question 43

What is priming?

Answer 43

Priming occurs when exposure to stimuli in one's environment activates a non-conscious goal (Schmidt et al., 2013)

Question 44

How does goal activation occur?

Answer 44

Goal activation occurs through a process known as spreading activation. When a goal is activated, related goals and knowledge are also likely to be activated. At the same time, other goals can be inhibited (goal inhibition). Supported by research. (Schmidt et al., 2013)

Question 45

What is the relationship between affect and goal progress?

Answer 45

Gals are related to affect in that goals set the standard for self-satisfaction with performance. Affect is an outcome of goal progress. Success = positive affect and vice versa. Also likely reciprocal - feedback can influence affect which can then influence future goals people set. Goal progress/success at work can help improve general well being even when there is a lack of progress in personal life. (Locke and Latham, 2006; Also noted in Schmidt et al., 2013)

Question 46

What effect do deadlines have on goal commitment?

Answer 46

Close deadlines increase goal commitment due to a sense of urgency. This means people will be drawn toward activities providing immediate/near term over outcomes that are further in the future. Temporal motivation theory explains this - proposes that attractiveness of positive outcomes and the aversiveness of negative outcomes decrease as their occurrence moves further into the future (Schmitt et al., 2013)

Question 47

What are universal motives related to goals?

Answer 47

Need fulfillment - SDT, Maslow Intrinsic motivation - driven by tasks being self-determined Desire for justice/fairness (motivated to reduce tension created by injustice) (Kanfer et al., 2017)

Question 48

What are trait-based motives related to goals/motivation (as opposed to universal)?

Answer 48

-Desires for achievement, power, and affiliation -Personality differences -Motivation orientations (e.g., promotion versus prevention, learning versus performance). (Kanfer et al., 2017)

Question 49

What are some goal setting theories and goal striving theories? Which ones integrate both goal setting and striving?

Answer 49

Goal setting theories include goal choice, Vroom's (1964) VIE (expectancy) theory, and the theory of planned behavior. Goal striving is largely represented by self-regulation theory, which involves self-monitoring, self-evaluation, and self-reactions. Theories that integrate both goal setting and striving include goal-setting theory, action regulation theory (focus on plans), resource allocation theories (resources allocated across multiple goals), and ego depletion theory (individuals drain their finite resources through sustained self-control). Kanfer et al. 2017

Question 50

Describe self-determination theory.

Answer 50

Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) posits that three universal needs - autonomy, competence, and relatedness - impact performance through intrinsic motivation.

Question 51

Define intrinsic motivation.

Answer 51

Intrinsic motivation exists when people complete tasks because they are interesting and enjoyable, rather than solely as a means for gaining incentives. Tasks that are interesting and enjoyable are believed to satisfy one or more of the universal needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Self-determination is a key driver of intrinsic motivation. Outcomes of intrinsic motivation include increased performance for complex tasks, creativity, commitment, retention. Most studies have found that extrinsic motivation (motivation to complete a task to receive an external reward) corrupts intrinsic motivation. Kanfer et al, 2017

Question 52

What are outcomes of intrinsic motivation?

Answer 52

Outcomes of intrinsic motivation include increased performance for complex tasks, creativity, commitment, retention. Kanfer et al, 2017

Question 53

What impact does extrinsic motivation have on intrinsic motivation?

Answer 53

Most studies have found that extrinsic motivation (motivation to complete a task to receive an external reward) corrupts intrinsic motivation. Kanfer et al, 2017

Question 54

How does a universal desire/motive for justice and fairness influence motivation?

Answer 54

Employees compare their inputs and outcomes to others and perceived imbalances create a tension they are motivated to reduce. Fairness is valued for instrumental (reducing uncertainty and fear), relational (communicating positive social worth), and moral (aligns with ethical norms) reasons. (Kanfer et al 2017)

Question 55

What are three trait based motives?

Answer 55

Achievement motivation: the desire to accomplish something difficult by attaining high standards of excellence. Power motivation: the desire to achieve high levels of power. Affiliation motivation: the desire to build and maintain positive relationships with others. Kanfer et al., 2017

Question 56

What are personality traits associated with motivation?

Answer 56

Conscientiousness and neuroticism are good predictors of performance. Core self-evaluations (self-esteem, self-efficacy, emotional stability, and internal loci of control) lead to greater effort and persistence. Extraversion indicates an approach motivation. Neuroticism an avoidance motivation. (Kanfer et al., 2017)

Question 57

What motivation orientations are there and how are they associated with outcomes?

Answer 57

Promotion and prevention focus Learning vs performance orienation Promotion focus is a better predictor of productivity and well being; Prevention focus is a better predictor of safety behavior. Learning orientations assume ability is malleable and lead to DEVELOPING competence. Performance orientations assume ability is fixed and lead to DEMONSTRATING competence.

Question 58

What are contextual variables that influence motivation?

Answer 58

Extrinsic rewards - undermine intrinsic motivation in some cases Task and job characteristics (JCM and Humphrey expansion) - designing jobs that are high in those characteristics create a context in which performance becomes its own reward. Group and team-level influences

Question 59

What's a problem with VIE (expectancy theory)?

Answer 59

It emphasizes the calculation (people as calculators metaphor) and people are not that rational when making decisions). This and some methods issues paved the way for revised models and new formulations that emphasized the link between goal choice and goal striving (this is a goal choice theory). VIE proposes GOAL CHOICE is based on the calculation of the V-I-E. Valence- expected level of satisfaction from achieving the outcome; Instrumentality - likelihood of achieving those outcomes, and Expectancy that one will reach that level of performance needed. Kanfer et al 2017

Question 60

Kanfer et al., 2017

Answer 60

This is a review paper (100 Years JAP) on work motivation. | Cite for history and evolutions of motivation theories.

Question 61

What is self determination theory (SDT)'s contribution to workplace motivation literature?

Answer 61

It differentiates types of motivation and maintains that different types of motivation have different catalyzers and consequences. It specifically suggests that both employees’ performance and their well being are affected by the type of motivation they have for their job activities. Deci et al., 2017

Question 62

What is autonomous motivation

Answer 62

Characterized by people being engaged in an activity with a full sense of willingness and choice. Often they are intrinsically motivated but some extrinsically motivated activities can become autonomous - when they feel ownership and autonomy, when they receive clear feedback and supports, and when they understand the purpose and worth of their jobs.

Question 63

What is the negative outcome of controlled motivation?

Answer 63

Controlled motivation is when motivation is controlled through external or internal extrinsic motivation such as contingent rewards or power dynamics. This can narrow the range of employees' efforts, produce short term gains, and have negative spillover effects on future performance and engagement. Deci et al 2017

Question 64

SDT posits that extrinsic motivation is not always bad and that there are multiple forms. What are those forms and what is their impact?

Answer 64

1) External regulation: least autonomous of them. Perception that behavior is completely controlled by others. Neg effects on well being, even if it helps performance in short term sometimes. 2) Introjected regulation is a somewhat more autonomous form of extrinsic motivation that involves people being focused on avoiding disapproval or obtaining approval from others 3) Identified regulation is even more autonomous and refers to when individuals have personally identified with the importance or value of their work roles and behaviors 4) Integrated regulation refers to when the identification with a task is integrated into the self. Leads to full engagement without inner barriers or conflicts. More autonomous forms of motivation will predict greater persistence, performance quality, and well-being over time than will controlled forms. Deci et al 2017

Question 65

SDT posits that extrinsic motivation is not always bad and that there are multiple forms. What are those forms and what is their impact?

Answer 65

Extrinsic motivation is being motivated for reasons other than the behavior being inherently interesting or enjoyable. Types: 1) External motivation: Because being forced to do so or because of rewards/punishments. Least autonomous of them. Perception that behavior is completely controlled by others. Neg effects on well being, even if it helps performance in short term sometimes. Still "controlled" 2) Introjected motivation: Because would feel pride, shame, or guilt - focused on avoiding disapproval or obtaining approval from others. Is a somewhat more autonomous form than external. This is still technically "controlled". 3) Identified motivation: Because it feels important/valued, so you identify with the work. But not enjoyable in and of itself. 4) Integrated regulation refers to when the identification with a task is integrated into the self. Leads to full engagement without inner barriers or conflicts. More autonomous forms of motivation will predict greater persistence, performance quality, and well-being over time than will controlled forms. You can feel multiple forms at one time for a task. Deci et al 2017

Question 66

Describe an SDT model of workplace motivation and outcomes.

Answer 66

Antecedents: 2 types Social context variables (that thwart or support employee basic need satisfaction) and individual difference variables (causality orientation and approach/avoid; extrinsic vs intrinsic aspirations/goals). Mediators: 2 -Satisfaction of three basic needs -Autonomous vs Controlled Motivation (some studies have used both, in which case need satis predicts motivation) Outcomes: 2 types Work behaviors - performance Health and well-being (job satis, somatic) (Deci et al 2017) A meta-analysis by Van den Broeck et al (2016) found support for SDT – that the three basic needs incrementally predict intrinsic motivation and well-being.

Question 67

Van den Broeck et al., 2016

Answer 67

This is a meta examining the relationships of SDT model of work motivation. It found support for SDT – that the three basic needs incrementally predict intrinsic motivation and well-being. This supports Deci et al (2017) model of SDT theory of work motivation. Also found that averaging the three needs into one overall score is NOT appropriate. And that the Deci et al 2001 scale is slightly better predictor.

Question 68

Describe/define the three basic psych needs of SDT.

Answer 68

The satisfaction of three basic psychological needs are essential for individuals to achieve psychological growth, internalization, and well-being: Autonomy - acting with a sense of ownership of one’s behavior and feeling psychologically free Competence - the need to feel a sense of mastery over one’s environment and develop new skills Relatedness - the need to care for others and to be loved and cared for by others Deci and Ryan, 2000

Question 69

What is cognitive evaluation theory and why was it problematic?

Answer 69

Deci , 1975/1980 Suggested that external rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation. Was controversial. Some support for sure, but there are conditions under which tangible rewards are not detrimental (i.e., when rewards are not expected). Interest waned because it was hard to integrate with other predominant theories at the time (VIE) and it was hard to apply in orgs because most jobs aren't intrinsically rewarding and money is important in work. And it was an issue that it seemed you'd need to focus on either one or the other. So, this led to the development of SDT. Ryan et al 1985 put forth the explanation of types of motivation based on "internalization" - to explain how external motivations can become autonomous.

Question 70

How do the JCM and SDT models compare and relate?

Answer 70

Both are motivation models. JCM motivational characteristics can map onto autonomy (autonomy), competence (task identity and significance), and relatedness (feedback). SDT focuses on job characteristics AND relationships at work. JCM does not focus on the interplay between autonomous and controlled motivation. Gagne and Deci, 2005

Question 71

What are outcomes of autonomous work motivation (SDT mediator)?

Answer 71

``` Performance Org trust Org commitment Psych well being Satisfaction ``` Gagne and Deci, 2005

Question 72

What is P-E fit and how is it related to motivation?

Answer 72

Person-environment fit is the compatibility between people and organizations that occurs when one entity provides what the other needs, or they share similar fundamental characteristics, or both. Greguras et al 2009 found that PE fit predicted performance and commitment through need satisfaction (SDT), indicating that PE fit is motivating.

Question 73

In what ways is commitment a motivational construct?

Answer 73

Different motivations (SDT forms) underlie each form of commitment. The basis of affective commitment is self-determined motivations (Gagne and Deci, 2005), so not just due to external controls. Research has demonstrated that self-determined (autonomous) motivation predicted affective commitment. This is identification and internalization. Normative commitment is characterized by introjection (the feeling of obligation and duty). Less self determined. Continuance commitment - involves appraisals of personal investments tied to one's current employment and availability of alternatives. This is not determined - external constraints. Johnson et al., 2010

Question 74

What are moderators of the goal-performance relationship, according to goal setting theory research?

Answer 74

- Goal commitment (for persistence, esp on difficult goals; enhanced by self-efficacy and viewing the goal as important) - Feedback (to help them adjust level or direction of effort) - Task complexity - Situational constraints (i.e., role overload) Locke and Latham, 2002; 2006

Question 75

What factors influence goal commitment and how can each be enhanced?

Answer 75

1) Importance of the outcomes that they expect as a result of working to attain a goal. (This can be enhanced by sharing an inspiring vision.) 2) self-efficacy (enhanced through training, role modeling, communicating you believe they can accomplish the goal). Locke and Latham, 2002

Question 76

What is the relationship between meeting goals and satisfaction?

Answer 76

Exceeding the goal provides increasing satisfaction as the positive discrepancy grows, and vice versa. The more goals successes the higher one’s satisf. But there is a paradox. People who produce the most (with difficult goals) are least satisfied because they are dissatisfied with less. The bar for satisfaction is at a higher level (L&L, 2002).

Question 77

What is the high performance cycle?

Answer 77

High goals lead to high performance, which in turn leads to rewards like recognition and promotion. These rewards lead to satisfaction as well as high self efficacy regarding perceived ability to meet future challenges through the setting of even higher goals. In this, high satisf is the RESULT, not the cause, of high performance when rewards are commensurate with performance. Satisfaction leads to future performance only if it fosters org commitment and this commitment is to specific and challenging goals. L&L, 2002

Question 78

What was the main takeaway of the goal setting debate?

Answer 78

Some scholars (e.g., Ordonez et al., 2009) point out that goal setting may come with negative side effects (i.e., narrowing employees’ focus, decreasing intrinsic motivation, increasing unethical behavior and competitiveness). Despite these possible concerns, ample research demonstrates that goals enhance motivation and performance (Locke and Latham, 2002). The potential negative side effects may be mitigated through proper planning and communication around priorities and the setting of appropriate timelines.

Question 79

What is the main takeaway of Goal Setting Theory (GTS)?

Answer 79

That setting specific, hard goals leads to higher levels of task performance than do easy or vague/abstract (i.e., do your best) goals. Moderators are goal commitment, competing goals, and having the skills/abilities required. So, as long as they are committed, don't have conflicting goals and have the skills/ability, there is a linear, positive relationship between goal difficulty and performance. Goals function as a discrepancy creating process - setting goals implies discontent with a current situation. (Locke and Latham, 1990; 2002)

Question 80

According to goal setting theory, what are mediators/mechanisms of the relationship between goals and performance?

Answer 80

High goals lead to: 1) Greater effort 2) Greater persistence 3) Directed attention, effort, and action toward goal-relevant action (rather than non-relevant actions) L&L, 2006

Question 81

When are learning / do your best goals better than performance goals?

Answer 81

When the task is new and complex - because setting a specific performance outcome can make people focus too much on the outcome and not on acquiring the important skills needed to reach it. Locke and Latham believe that setting a learning goal facilitates planning, monitoring, and evaluating progress toward goal attainment ("metacognition"), which is especially important in environments in which there is minimal structure or guidance. (Locke and Latham, 2006)

Question 82

Locke and Latham (2006)

Answer 82

In this paper they review new directions in goal setting theory, highlighting 8 moderators to goal setting's effects. By doing so they are highlighting ways the "open theory" of GTS has evolved. Some moderators were learning goals (when they're better than performance goals), framing, affect, personality, group goals, and priming). Cite this when talking about moderators.

Question 83

Why is framing important for goal setting?

Answer 83

When people view goals as threatening, difficult goals may not lead to better performance. Framing can be used to position the goal as a challenge (focus on success and usefulness of effort) rather than a hindrance/threat (focus on failure), which led to higher performance (Locke and Latham, 2002).

Question 84

How does learning goal orientation vs performance goal orientation impact performance?

Answer 84

Learning goal orientation (trait) tends to choose tasks where they can acquire new skills or knowledge; performance goal orientation tend to avoid tasks where others may judge them unfavorably. For complex tasks, people should have a state learning goal orientation and set learning goals, no matter which trait orientation they have, for optimal performance. You can induce it as a state.

Question 85

What is the effect of subconsciously primed goals and what is their usefulness?

Answer 85

Even goals that are subconsciously primed (affect performance. Priming works best with difficult goals (Locke and Latham, 2006). Priming can be done with words in handbook manuals or photographs/imagery in the environment, for example (Schantz and Latham, 2009 - photograph of winning a race). They are useful because conscious goals consume limited attentional resources, but subconscious ones do not. One could assign a learning goal consciously and a subconscious performance goal, esp in new/complex situations (Latham et al., 2010). Priming may be inappropriate, though, so there are ethical considerations (i.e., could manipulate employees to volunteer for overtime, etc). (Latham et al., 2010).

Question 86

Bandura 1977 vs Bandura 1991

Answer 86

Bandura 1977: self-efficacy as something that influences one's attitude toward behavior and goal pursuit Bandura 1991 - social cognitive theory of self-regulation; humans regulate their own behavior through a process of self-regulation, in which they monitor their own behavior (self-monitoring), compare it to a standard (self-evaluating), and react to their comparison (self-reaction).

Question 87

Describe social cognitive theory of self-regulation

Answer 87

Bandura (1991) put forth the social cognitive theory of self-regulation, which holds that humans regulate their own behavior by monitoring their behavior (self-monitoring), comparing it to a standard (self-evaluating), and reacting to the comparison (self-reaction). This is very similar to control theory (Carver and Scheier, 1990); main difference is that control theory does not feature self-efficacy. Bandura and Locke have argued that control theory is focused on a "negative discrepancy", and social cog theory puts more agency in individual where they have SE and are purposeful. The main difference is that self-efficacy plays a bigger role in Bandura's theory. Bandura posits that when a goal is reached, those with strong SE will likely set a higher standard for themselves. Self-efficacy plays a central role in the relationship by influencing the perceived causes of success and failures and determining the standard of comparison.

Question 88

Under what circumstances does self efficacy hurt performance and effort? Practical implications?

Answer 88

Vancouver and Purl (2017) found that self-efficacy has a negative effect under conditions of ambiguous feedback. Vancouver and Kendall (2006) found that self-efficacy was negatively related to planned and actual resource allocation (i.e., time spent studying for an exam). When people felt less SE, they studied more and vice versa. Practical application - might make sense to try to temporarily decrease trainees' SE just so they expend more resources to learn. But not so much so that they give up.

Question 89

Vancouver and Kendall, 2006

Answer 89

This is an empirical study that tested the impact of SE on trainee outcomes. They used within-person methods (students studying for an exam). They asked them to rate SE (expected exam grade) and then planned effort (hours studying) then actual study time. They found that self-efficacy was negatively related to planned and actual resource allocation (i.e., time spent studying for an exam). When people felt less SE, they studied more and vice versa. Practical application - might make sense to try to temporarily decrease trainees' SE just so they expend more resources to learn. But not so much so that they give up.

Question 90

What is affective shift and how is it related to motivation processes and outcomes?

Answer 90

Yang et al (2016) found that changes (shifts) in positive and negative affect over the course of a work day interacted to predict employees' OCB and task performance the following work day. Unique patterns for each outcome. Upshift in PA --> OCB more when there was a downshift in NA Upshift in PA and Upshift in NA --> task performance Basically, negative PA going up one day increased likelihood of task performance going up next day if positive affect also went up.

Question 91

What is sense of coherence and what is its role in motivational processes?

Answer 91

The JD-R model described Sense of coherence as the extent to which people perceive their life as comprehensible, manageable and meaningful. Vogt et al (2016) tested the relationships between job resources, sense of coherence, and work engagement and found that job resources predicted SoC, which in turn predicted engagement. They also found that SoC predicts job resources, suggesting reciprocal relationships between job resources and SoC. Work engagement also predicted resources, which is alignment with broaden and build theory.

Question 92

Vogt et al 2016

Answer 92

This was an empirical study examining whether sense of coherence could help explain the effects of job resources on work engagement. The JD-R model described Sense of coherence as the extent to which people perceive their life as comprehensible, manageable and meaningful. They found that job resources predicted SoC, which in turn predicted engagement. They also found that SoC predicts job resources, suggesting reciprocal relationships between job resources and SoC. Work engagement also predicted resources, which is alignment with broaden and build theory.

Question 93

Is motivation a trait? How is personality associated with motivation?

Answer 93

Although researchers seem t agree that personality is related to motivation, it doesn't have a prominent more in motivation theories (usually distal or moderator). However, Judge and Ilies (2002) meta found that neuroticism and conscientiousness were the strongest and most consistent correlates of performance motivation. The Big 5 all together correlated .49 with performance motivation, indicating those traits are an important source of performance motivation.

Question 94

Judge and Ilies, 2002

Answer 94

A meta-analysis on personality (Big 5) and motivation to perform. They found that neuroticism (emotional stability) and conscientiousness were the strongest and most consistent predictors of motivation to perform. This makes sense because these two traits are the strongest predictors of actual performance. Together, the Big 5 correlated .49 with motivation to perform, indicating Big 5 are important sources of performance motivation.

Question 95

Cerasoli et al., 2014

Answer 95

A meta-analysis on the impact of intrinsic motivation vs extrinsic motivation on performance. Cerasoli et al. (2014) found that intrinsic motivation positively predicted performance, especially when the task was focused on quality. They also found that extrinsic motivation was a better predictor of performance when it focused on quantity (compared to intrinsic motivation).

Question 96

How are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation related to performance?

Answer 96

Cerasoli et al. (2014) found that intrinsic motivation positively predicted performance, especially when the task was focused on quality and incentives for task completion were indirectly performance-salient. They also found that extrinsic motivation was a better predictor of performance when it focused on quantity (compared to intrinsic motivation). Keep in mind that SDT holds that extrinsic motivation doesn't always have to undermine intrinsic motivation.

Question 97

Kooij et al 2014

Answer 97

Meta on age and motives. Found significant positive relationship between age and intrinsic motives, and a significant negative relationship between age and strength of growth and extrinsic motives.

Question 98

Rynes et al (2014)

Answer 98

Rynes et al. (2004) argue that research on compensation has largely found that strong pay-performance relationships are most desirable to high-performing employees, and that pay systems should be evaluated to the extent they establish these relationships. Rynes et al. (2004) note that the compensation research demonstrates employees compare their pay levels, and rate of increase or decrease, to both the market and the organization’s executives. A great discrepancy in favor of the employee is less advantageous than a great discrepancy against the employee is advantageous.

Question 99

Baraket-Bojmel et al., 2014

Answer 99

This was an empirical study on short-term bonuses. They compared non-monetary ones to monetary ones and looked at their impacts on performance. All had positive impacts; non-monetary (i.e., verbal praise) had slightly more of a positive effect. When they were taken away, the removal of monetary bonuses led to decreased productivity but no decrease from non-monetary. This suggests that if employers are considering trying out a bonus structure, they need to consider the potential fallout if it goes away.

Question 100

Johnson et al., 2010

Answer 100

This is an empirical study that tested the effects of TRAIT positive and negative affectivity on performance (task and contextual) They utilized both explicit and implicit (word fragmentation task) methods of measuring the trait affectivity. They found that trait PA predicted higher performance on task and OCB, and trait NA negatively predicted PA and CWB. This aligns with the idea that having a promotion focus (regulatory focus theory; Higgins, 1997) is related to having positive affect. This approach focus has positive effect on goal setting and striving.

Question 101

What is the relationship between trait positive and negative affect and performance? What is the motivational explanation?

Answer 101

Trait positive affect predicted higher performance on task and OCB, and trait NA negatively predicted PA and CWB. (Johnson et al., 2010) This aligns with the idea that having a promotion focus (regulatory focus theory; Higgins, 1997) is related to having positive affect. This approach focus has positive effect on goal setting and striving

Question 102

How does affective events theory explain affect's effect on performance?

Answer 102

According to affective events theory, work events lead to affective reactions, which in turn influence work attitudes and affect-driven behavior (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996).

Question 103

What is the role of feedback in goal regulation over time?

Answer 103

Ilies and Judge 2005 found that people lowered their goals after receiving negative feedback, but raised them after receiving positive feedback. This is consistent with goal-setting and social cognitive theory. It also aligns with AET.

Question 104

What is a psychological contract, why are they important to motivation, and how can employers impact them to benefit the firm?

Answer 104

A psychological contract is an unwritten contract that describes the understandings, beliefs and commitments that exist between an employee and their employer. (Workers have one with employers and employers have one with workers; so ideally they align.) Most important is that they're mutual - agreement on what each owes each other is critical to the relationship's success. They can be relational (loyalty and stability terms), transactional (narrow duties, limited duration), or hybrid/balanced (open-ended time frame and mutual concern) Psych contracts motivate workers to fulfill commitments made to employers when workers are confident that employers will reciprocate and fulfill their end of the bargain. Employers can ensure that immediate managers are supportive to shape the contract; top-down communication. Train and treat managers well b/c they impact the psych contracts of employees. Rousseau, 1995

Question 105

What are features of psychological contracts?

Answer 105

Psychological contracts have six features: 1) Voluntary choice to make the commitment 2) Belief that both parties mutually agree on the commitment 3) Incompleteness that must be fleshed out over time 4) Multiple sources of information about the contract 5) Management of losses when contracts fail 6) Viewing the contract as a model of the employment relationship that may require amendments Rousseau, 2004

Question 106

Rousseau, 2004

Answer 106

This is a review article on psychological contacts. It reviews what they are, how they're shaped and what employers can do to manage them.

Question 107

How does psych contract breach impact job attitudes? What are moderators of that?

Answer 107

Psychological contract breach relates negatively to trust, job satisfaction, and commitment. This impacts older workers less. Bal et al., 2008

Question 108

Is it better to give or receive, and to have a selfish/otherish orientation?

Answer 108

In their review of the literature Crocker et al. (2017) found that selfish motivations yield many detrimental costs, whereas other-ish motivations yield many benefits. Crocker et al 2017

Question 109

What is prosocial motivation and what is its role in performance?

Answer 109

Prosocial motivation is defined as the desire to benefit other people. (Grant, 2008) Intrinsic motivation moderates the impact of prosocial motivation on performance. The higher the intrinsic motivation, the stronger the positive association between prosocial motivation and persistence, performance, and productivity. Grant (2008)

Question 110

How does helping hurt the helper?

Answer 110

Lanaj et al, 2016 found that responding to help requests deplete regulatory resources at an increasing rate, but perceived prosocial impact can help replenish the resource. But the more prosocial motivation one has, the less that effect is buffered.