morning Flashcards
coding baddeley
acoustically and semantically similar words, recall immediately and after 20 mins, immediate struggles to recall acoustic-codes acoustically and 20 mins struggled to recall semantic-codes semantically
capacity
-Jacobs and Miller
-Jacobs-used digit span test to assess capacity of STM, eg researcher read 4 digits and ppt recalled, if correct then 5 digits etc.this indicates individuals digit span-mean span for digits 9.3, 7.3 letters
-miller-made observation of everyday practice-noted that things come in 7s-7 notes on musical scale, 7 days of week, 7 deadly sins.- thought span(capacity) is 7 items+./-2.
-Also noted people can recall 5 words as easily as 5 letters-do this by chunking -grouping sets of letters into units or chunks(5 words=5 chunks).
-L-cowan reviewed other research and concluded capacity of STM only about 4 +/-1 chunks-suggests lower end of Millers estimate more appropriate.
duration
Peterson and Peterson-tested 24 students in 8 trials(tests) each. nonsense trigrams and 3 digit number- had to recall after retention interval of 3,6,9,12,15,18-ppts had to count back from 3 digit number.
-3 secs-80% recalled correctly -18 secs-3%. -STM duration therefore between 18-30 seconds.
Bahrick-LTM duration-studied 392 American ppts 17-74. High school yearbooks. Photo recognition 90% within 15 years graduation 70% 48 yrs
free recall task 60% 15, 30% 48. - LTM may last up to lifetime.
MSM
-Atkinson and Shiffrin
-sensory register-comprises several registers(sensory memory stores)-one for each of 5 senses.Coding in each store is modality specific-depends on sense. store coding for visual information is iconic memory and store coding acoustically is echoic memory. SRs have high capacity eg over one hundred million cells in one eye, each storing data.
-L-STM not unitary store-Patient called KF with clinical memory disorder called amnesia-STM for digits very poor when read aloud to him, recall much better when he read digits to himself-ST store for sounds and images-further studies of KF show there could be another ST store for non-verbal sounds.
-L-prolonged rehearsal-actually elaborative rehearsal-link info to existing knowledge, or think about what it means.
Types of LTM
Tulving -episodic,procedural,semantic
-s-clinical evidence-HM,clive wearing, episodic memory impaired due to brain damage, semantic memories remained unaffected-understood meaning of words eg HM couldn’t recall stroking do half hour ago but could say what a dog is. procedural memories still intact, both knew how to walk and speak, Clive wearing knew how to read, sing,play piano.
working memory model
central executive-supervisory role-monitors incoming data,focuses+divides our limited attention-allocates subsystems to tasks-limited processing capacity and doesn’t store information.
phonological loop-deals with auditory information-coding acoustic-preserves order information arrives. subdivided into phonological store-stores words you hear. and articulatory process-allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds/words in loop to keep them in working memory while they are needed) capacity of this loop 2 second worth of what you can say.
-visuo-spatial sketchpad-stores visual and/or spatial info when required, limited capacity three or four objects, Logie subdivided it- visual cache-stores visual data, inner scribe-records arrangement of objects in visual field.
-episodic buffer-added by baddeley in 2000, temporary store of info, integrating visual, spatial and verbal info processed by other stores-and maintaining sense of time sequencing-basically records events that are happening, storage component and has limited capacity of about 4 chunks-links working memory to long term memory and wider cognitive processes eg perception.
s-same KF argument as MSM but strength-C-other cognitive impairments eg trauma.
L-dual task-Baddeley-visual and verbal tasks at same time, same results as if they carried out separately, but visual visual etc.
L-baddeley recognise lack of clarity over CE
interference
proactive-old disrupt new. retroactive-new disrupt old.
-mcgeoch and Mcdonald study-groups remember list- learn one of 6 new- synonyms antonyms etc, synonyms worst recall of original list-man of just over one word recalled.
-s-rugby players baddeley and hitch
-l-interference and cues-lists of words, in categories (not told) 70% recall at start but as keeping learning more recall worse, cued recall test-rose to 70% again.
-S-drug study support-evidence of retrograde facilitation-list of words, later asked to recall assuming intervening experiences would act as interference. when learnt under drug diazepam, recall one week later worse than control, learnt before taking drug recall better than placebo-drug prevents new info reaching parts of brain involved in processing memories-so can’t interfere retroactively with stored info. show forgetting due to interference-reduce interference reduce forgetting.
retrieval failure
encoding specificity principle
godden and baddeley-40% lower recall of list of words in non-matching conditions
Carter and cassaday-learn lists of words and passages of prose on antihistamines and not- recall significantly worse non-matching
-part of a strength-memory researchers Michael Eysenck and Mark Keane argue that retrieval failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting from LTM.
misleading information
-incorrect information given to an eyewitness usually after the event, eg leading questions and PED
-Leading questions-loftus and palmer-45 ppts watch film clips of car accidents, then asked questions-critical question-‘about how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?’-changed verb-hit, contacted,bumped,collided,smashed-mean estimate speed calculated for each group-contacted-31.8mph smashed-40.5mph
-response bias/substitution explanation-broken glass smashed
-Gabbert et al-PED-pairs-saw videos of same crime, different POV. Each ppt saw elements in event other could not eg title of book carried by young woman-then discussed before individually completing test of recall.
-71% mistakenly recalled aspects of event they didn’t see in the video but picked up in discussion-control group no discussion=0%
-memory contamination/conformity
anxiety
-creates physical arousal in body-prevents us paying attention to important cues
-Johnson and Scott negative effect-puts believed taking part in lab study-waiting room-low anxiety condition-heard casual conversation in next room-man walk past with pen and grease on hand. other ppt in high anxiety condition heard heated argument with breaking glass, man walked out holding knife covered in blood. Ppts later picked out man from set of 50 photos,49% who had seen man carrying pen able to identify him,33%.tunnel theory-argues people have enhanced memory for central events-weapon focus as a result of anxiety can have this affect.
-positiv effect-yuille and cutshall-actual shooting vancouver canada shop owner shot thief dead. 21 witnesses 13 took part interviewed 4-5 months after incident-compared to original police interviews at time of shooting, accuracy determined by number of details reported in each account, rate how stresses 7 point scale and any emotional problems since eg sleeplessness.
-accurate, little change in recall or accuracy after 5 months-some details less accurate eg age height, high stress reported most accurate 88% 75% for less stressed group-suggests anxiety doesn’t have detrimental effect on EWT.
-inverted U YERKES AND DODSON,-deffenbacher reviewed 21 studies noted contradictory findings of anxiety effect. HE USED YERKES DODSON LAW TO EXPLAIN.emotional and physical arousal.
-strength of negative effects-labyrinth of horror in London dungeons, reduced entrance fee if they agreed to complete questionnaires at end of their visit to assess level of self reported anxiety. wore wireless heart monitors to assess anxiety and split into high and low anxiety groups-describe actor in labyrinth-high anxiety fewest correct details, more mistakes. 17% high anxiety group correctly identified actor in line up compared to 75%
-s-positive effects-interviewed 58 witnesses to actual bank robberies in Sweden- some directly involved (eg bank workers) some indirectly (eg bystanders), researchers assumed those directly involved would experience most anxiety -recall 75% across all witnesses-direct victims more accurate.
-counterpoint-interview several months later confounding variables eg PED
cognitive interview
Fisher and Geiselman
-report everything, reinstate context, reverse order, change perspective
-fisher et al-enhanced cognitive interview
-S-meta analysis, combined data 55 studies comparing CI (and ECI) with standard police interview. CI gave average 41% increase accurate info compared to standard interview. Only 4 studies showed no difference.
-C-also found increase in amount of inaccurate info particular ECI produced more inaccurate than CI-CI may sacrifice quality of EWT ie accuracy in favour of quantity (amount of details) treat evidence with caution.
-all alone-produced more info than standard police interview-combo of report everything and reinstate context produced better recall than any of the other elements or combos of them-some aspects more useful than others.
