Mono-, Di - and Polysaccharides. Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the general formula of a polysaccharide?

A

(CH2O)n

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2
Q

What are the smallest possible polysaccharides?

A

Trioses.

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3
Q

All monosaccharides have a carbonyl group, but they can be divided into…

A

Aldoses and ketoses.

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4
Q

What are the two possible trioses?

A

Glyceraldehyde (an aldotriose)

Dihydroxyacetone (a ketotriose).

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5
Q

Monosaccharides have chiral centres. Which chiral centre is used to determine whether it is the D (dextrorotatory) or L (levorotatory) enantiomer?

A

The chiral centre furthest from the carbonyl group.

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6
Q

Since it is impossible to tell which direction a monosaccharide will rotate plane polarised light from its structure alone, which standard molecule is used to assign D- or L-?

A

Glyceraldehyde.

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7
Q

Which enantiomer has the -OH group on the furthest chiral carbon from the carbonyl group pointing to the right?

A

D-

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8
Q

Which enantiomer has the -OH group on the furthest chiral carbon from the carbonyl group pointing to the left?

A

L-

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9
Q

Which enantiomer of monosaccharides is nearly always found in nature, due to the stereospecificity of enzymes?

A

D-

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10
Q

What determines the different biochemical properties of different monosaccharides, despite the fact that they have the same molecular formula?

A

The arrangement of atoms around chiral centres other than that furthest from the carbonyl group.

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11
Q

What term is used to describe monosaccharides that differ in only one chiral centre?

A

Epimers.

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12
Q

Give an example of an epimer of D-glucose. What carbon do they differ at?

A

D-galactose. They differ at C4.

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13
Q

What reaction converts monosaccharides from linear to ring structures?

A

Intramolecular cyclisation reactions.

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14
Q

Describe the intramolecular cyclisation reaction of D-glucose to form D-glucopyranose.

A

Rotation around the bond between C4 and C5 allows the hydroxyl group on C5 to act as a nucleophile, reacting with the aldehyde group on C1. This forms the six-membered pyranose ring. This creates a new chiral centre at C1, called the anomeric carbon.

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15
Q

Why are two different anomers of D-glucopyranose formed?

A

The hydroxyl group can attack from above or below the plane of the carbonyl group, so an alpha- and beta- form are created.

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16
Q

In alpha-D-glucopyranose, how are the H and OH groups arranged on C4 and C1?

A

They are oriented the same on both carbons, with the H atom at the top and the OH atom at the bottom.

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17
Q

In beta-D-glucopyranose, how are the H and OH groups arranged on C4 and C1?

A

They are oriented on opposite sides on each carbon. At C4, H is at the top, and OH at the bottom. On C1, OH is at the top, and H at the bottom.

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18
Q

In solution, the open chain and cyclic forms of glucose are in equilibrium with one another - what is the ratio between them at 30 degrees celsius?

A

2/3 is in the form of beta-D-glucopyranose, 1/3 is in the form of alpha-D-glucopyranose, and there are only trace amounts in the open chain form.

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19
Q

What is the most stable conformation for cyclic monosaccharides, and why?

A

The chair form is most stable. There are fewer steric clashes between the hydroxyl groups, as they point outwards and are further apart.

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20
Q

How are disaccharides formed?

A

Condensation reaction between two monosaccharides.

21
Q

D-alpha-glucose x 2 = ?

A

Maltose

22
Q

alpha-D-glucose + beta-D-glucose = ?

A

Beta- anomer of maltose.

23
Q

D-beta-glucose x 2 = ?

A

Cellobiose.

24
Q

What type of glycosidic bond is found in maltose?

A

alpha 1,4 glycosidic bond.

25
Q

What type of glycosidic bond is found in cellobiose?

A

beta 1,4 glycosidic bond.

26
Q

Why is the second monomer flipped in cellobiose?

A

It is not energetically stable for the glycosidic bond to join one monomer from above and one from below.

27
Q

What are the two forms of starch?

A

Amylopectin.

Amylose.

28
Q

Describe amylose.

A

Unbranched. All of the glycosidic bonds are alpha 1,4 linkages. It is compact and helical.

29
Q

Describe amylopectin.

A

Branched.
Primarily alpha 1,4 linkages, but with alpha 1,6 branch points approximately every 30 residues.
Slightly curved.

30
Q

What is the monosaccharide that makes up starch and glycogen?

A

Alpha-D-glucopyranose.

31
Q

What is the monosaccharide that makes up cellulose?

A

Beta-D-glucopyranose.

32
Q

Describe glycogen.

A

Highly branched.
Primarily alpha 1,4 linkages, but alpha 1,6 linkages approximately every 10 residues.
Due to branching, it does not pack together well, so is less compact.

33
Q

What is the benefit of glycogen’s high amount of branching?

A

It has lots of ends so can be hydrolysed more quickly, for faster energy release.

34
Q

Describe cellulose.

A

Unbranched.
Only beta-1,4 glycosidic bonds.
Chains pack together tightly and are cross-linked by hydrogen bonds, forming rigid structures.

35
Q

All monosaccharides are reducing sugars - why?

A

They have a free reactive carbonyl group that can react with oxidising agents.

36
Q

What is necessary for a disaccharide to be a reducing sugar?

A

They require a reducing end - a free anomeric carbon.

37
Q

Why is sucrose NOT a reducing sugar?

A

It does not have a free anomeric carbon.

38
Q

What property do the different ends of a polysaccharide give it?

A

Directionality.

39
Q

How can monosaccharides be modified?

A

Substitution of hydroxyl groups for other functional groups that alter the properties of the monosaccharide and its polysaccharides.

40
Q

Chitin is a beta-1,4 polymer of modified monosaccharides. What are the monomers of chitin?

A

N-acetylglucosamine.

41
Q

Where is chitin found?

A

The cell walls of fungi and the exoskeletons of arthropods.

42
Q

What is the group substituted for the hydroxyl group on carbon 2 in chitin?

A

Acetamide (ethanamide).

43
Q

What type of modified polysaccharide is found in synovial fluid between joints?

A

Glycosaminoglycans.

44
Q

What is hyaluronic acid?

A

A beta-1,4 linked polymer of a beta-1,3 linked dimer of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetyl-D-glucosamine.

45
Q

What makes hyaluronic acid good as part of synovial fluid?

A

The negatively charged carboxylate group on the D-glucuronic acid monomer (C6) means that chains of hyaluronic acid repel each other and are highly hydrated, making the fluid more viscous.

46
Q

What are oligosaccharides?

A

Polysaccharides with only a few monomers.

47
Q

What are the main roles of oligosaccharides?

A

Often attached to proteins to form glycoproteins, which are then used as receptors, protection against proteases and to help cells stick to one another.

48
Q

Why are oligosaccharides good for specificity?

A

They can be added to proteins in many different orders, so can provide many different receptors for different molecules.

49
Q

What is added to all proteins that enter the ER during protein synthesis?

A

A precursor oligosaccharide.