Modules 5 - 8 Flashcards
Infant Development, Language Development, Early Childhood Development, Family Contexts
Sensation
processing of sensory info from external world (objective)
Perception
process of organizing and interpreting sensory info (subjective)
- everyone perceives the world differently
Additional perceptual skills develop in infancy…
depth perception
(where is it?)
object perception
(what is it?)
Depth Perception
the ability to see in 3D
Depth Cues include…
optical expansion (1 mo)
binocular disparity (4 mo)
monocular depth cues (6-7 mo)
Optical Expansion (1mo)
an object occludes more of its background as it approaches
Binocular Disparity (4 mo)
brain computes the difference between the signal it receives from the two eyes
Monocular Depth Cues (6 mo)
depth cues in only one eye
Object Perception (3 mo) includes…
perceptual constancy (3 mo)
object segregation (3 mo)
Perceptual Constancy (3 mo)
perceiving objects as the same despite differences in visual input
3 types: shape, color, size constancy
Object Segregation (3 mo)
perceiving boundaries of partially occluded objects
ex: rod and box experiment
Perceptual Narrowing
with repeated exposure, infants become more sensitive to sensory info in their surrounding environment, and less able to process info they have less exposure to
6 mo: can see diff in human and monkey faces
9 mo: can only see diff in human faces
The Other Race Effect (ORE)
adults have difficulty recognizing subtle differences in faces from other races
- not based on infants race
- increased variability of races exposed to = weaker ORE
Biological growth during infancy…
(by 12 mo)
weight x3
height x2
bones harden
muscles strengthen
Motor Development
gross motor skills (large muscle groups) develop before fine motor skills (small muscle groups)
- bc of progressive myelination (develop top, down, out)
Sequence = Universal
Timing = Individual
Examples of individual differences in motor development…
timing: some skills skipped
cultural effects: norms are based on old U.S. research
contextual effects: ex) infants sleeping on back to prevent SIDS crawl less
experience/training: ex) Jimmy and Johnny twin training study
Action depends on…
constraints imposed by the body and environment
- constantly changing
Perception Action Loop
1) perception affects action
2) action affects perception
3) perceptual feedback refines actions
4) loop - influence world learning and navigation
Purpose: supports more complex behaviors
Performance
expression of one’s knowledge or skill under very specific circumstances
Competence
underlying knowledge or skill that is reflected in behavior
Competence can only be measured….
indirectly by assessing performance
- very unlikely to have low competence but high performance
Cognition
knowledge and understanding acquired through thought, experience, and perception
Cognitive Processes
“thinking”
complex operations through which we acquire, store, and use knowledge
Recall: Piaget’s Constructivism says….
development occurs through cognitive adaptation to the environment
children actively construct thought system through interactions with the world
(P-A Loops)
Piaget’s Constructivsm includes:
schema
assimilation
disequilibrium
accommodation
stage theory
Schema
cognitive framework that categorizes concepts, objects, experiences
- “groups”
Assimilation
incorporating new experiences into existing schema
ex: child can group stray dogs with their pet dog
Disequilibrium
imbalance that results when new experience can’t easily fit into existing schema
ex: child can’t group cat with dogs
Accommodation
changing existing schema to fit a new experience
- restores equilibrium
Stage Theory
discontinuous/qualitative
major shifts in theory at ages 2, 7, 12 yrs
argued that all children progress through the stages in the same order (universal)
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 yrs)
infants organize the world via their perception and actions (P-A Loops)
achievements:
- shift from reflexes to goal directed actions
- development of object knowledge
limitations:
- little internal mental representation (low memory)
Circular Reactions (1-4 mo)
(part of Sensorimotor Stage)
reflexes result in positive feelings, actions are reinforced
Motor Schemas (1-4 mo)
(part of Sensorimotor Stage)
repeated actions
ex: grasping, hitting, mouthing
At 8-12 mo, motor schemas are…
combined to achieve a goal
ex: reaching to obtain a toy
Experimenting (12-18 mo)
(part of Sensorimotor Stage)
repeat motor schemas to explore different outcomes
ex: baby dropping spoon to get feedback
Object Knowledge
understanding that an object is…
- continuous: one unit even if the whole object cant be seen
- subject to gravity: requires support to avoid falling
- solid: incapable of having other objects pass through it
- permanent: still present even if concealed
Piaget says object permanence develops…
at 9-12 mo
(later in development)
- when infant passes the A-not-B task
A-not-B Task
tests for object permanence
1) hide toy in location A
2) infant searches for toy in location A
3) after several trials, switch and hide toy in location B
4) if child continues to search in location A: the A-not-B Error
Piaget’s critics say…
young infants are capable of much more advanced cognition like
- object knowledge
- number cognition
Habituation
declining attention or sensitivity to a repeating stimulus
Dishabituation
recovery of interest or sensitivity to a new stimulus
Violation of Expectation (VoE) Paradigm
assumes:
- our knowledge guides our expectations
- any stimuli/event that is contrary to existing knowledge/expectations will be surprising
- we can test infants knowledge by measuring surprise when expectations are violated
ex: monkey surprised by empty cup
Tests used by Piaget Critics
VoE Paradigm
Object permanence (A-not-B Task using VoE):
- 5 mo old infants
- same toy, same location 4x
- infants recovered interest when toy appeared to come out of a different location (impossible event)
Gravity:
- possible: can push object back and forth on support
- impossible: object floats wthout support
- @ 3 mo old –> looks longer at impossible event
Nativism (nature) says…. about cognitive devlopment
- development is driven by biology
- advanced skills available at birth
Behaviorism/Empiricism (nurture) says…. about cognitive development
- development is driven by environment
- advanced skills are gained over time
- developing attention and memory systems support early learning from environment
Neo-Nativism says…. about cognitive development
infants are born with sets of core knowledge that facilitate the development of cognitive capacities
Core Knowledge Theory
humans are born with a small number of core systems which form the foundation for more advanced skills and knowledge
- Universal: common across humans and primates
- Supports efficient learning within each domain: objects, numbers, spacial layout, social agents
Critiques of Core Knowledge…
always indirect measures of knowledge
- only know that infant looked longer at one event compared to another
- effects depend on familiarization/habituation period
- ages tested: rarely see effects among newborns
Over the first year, memory….
improves rapidly
linear increase
Conjugate Reinforcement Task
method of measuring memory in pre-verbal infants
- infant learns that kicking leg makes mobile move
- do infants remember the features of the mobile?
3 mo: remember for 1 wk
6 mo: remember for 2 wk
9 mo: remember for 6 wk
Infantile Amnesia
most people can’t remember before age 3
possible causes…
- Physiological: brain regions supporting early memory reorganize around 3-4 yrs old
- Encoding/Retrieval Incompatibility: early memories are encoded nonverbally, but we attempt to retrieve them later using verbal thought processes
- Identity Development: sense of self necessary to organize memories into autobiographical narrative
Age of earliest memories depends on…
event salience: more impact = more likely to remember
social influences: parents approach to engaging children in conversations about the past
Development of attention improves….
Control:
- smooth tracking
- longer attention
- selective attention
- less distracted
Flexibility:
- easily disengage
- distribute attention
- social referencing
- joint attention
Basic Emotions
Happy
Interest
Surprise
Fear
Anger
Sad
Disgust
- universal for adults across cultures
- infants unable to discriminate complex emotions, only negative vs positive
Elements of being Social…
social perception
social responsiveness
social communication
participation in social relationships
social reasoning
socially responsible
Social Perception
pick up on others emotions and behaviors
Social Responsiveness
meaningfully respond to others behavior
Social Communication
convey your own thoughts and emotions
Participation in Social Relationships
ongoing coordinate engagement with others
Social Reasoning
think about your own and others emotions
Socially Responsible
follow societal expectations
Infants are born with strong biases towards…
human faces
human voice
mother’s smell/sound
Temperament
constitutionally based individual modes of responding to the environment that are relatively consistent across situations and stable over time
- how we respond to the world around us
- equal genetic and environmental factors
Models of Temperment
Chess and Thomas (categories)
Rothbart (scores)
Chess and Thomas Model
infants are categorized based on their behavioral profile…
Easy: positive mood, adaptable, predictable patterns
Slow to Warm: slightly negative, a little slow to adapt, some irregular patterns
Difficult: negative mood, easily frustrated, slow to adapt, irregular/unpredictable patterns
Rothbart Model
infants are given a score in each category…
1) Reactivity: to what extent does infant react (+ or -) to sensory stimulation?
2) Self Regulation: to what extent is infant able to regulate those reactions?
- Extroversion: positive anticipation, energetic
- Negative Affect: negative mood, unable to adapt
- Effortful Control: focuses attention, soothes quickly
Goodness-of-fit
importance of caregiver responsiveness
- bidirectional effect: how well does temperament match parenting style + how well can caregiver respond to temperament?
Temperment =/= Personality because….
stability of infant and toddler temperament is LOW
- except in Behavioral Inhibition (BI)
Behavioral Inhibition (BI)
extreme negative emotionality and motor reactivity in infancy
- vigilant and withdrawn responses to novel people and situations
- more likely to be diagnosed with anxiety later in life
Development of Self Identity….
Year 1:
- self-world differentiation
- an agent who can make things happened (related to motor dev.)
Year 2:
- accurate use of pronouns: I vs. You
- possessiveness: claiming ownership over things
- physical self-recognition
(ex: the rouge test)
The Rouge Test
put rouge on infant’s face and place them in front of a mirror
—> does infant touch the rouge in the mirror or on their face?
- mirror = no self-recognition
- face = self-recognition
Primary Intersubjectivity
reciprocal emotional sharing between infants and caregivers
ex: social smiling, conversational cooing
Still-face Paradigm
1) caregiver and infant interact normally
2) caregiver stops moving, maintains neutral face
3) infant immediately detects change and tries to get caregivers attention
4) if no success, infant gives up
- reflects expectation for reciprocal interactions
- can see by 1 mo
Secondary Intersubjectivity
sharing between infants and caregivers that references objects, people, and emotions beyond themselves
- social referencing
- joint attention
*seen in 2nd half of first year
Social Referencing
infants look to their caregivers for an indication of how they should feel and act in an unfamiliar environment or alarming setting
Joint Attention
shared focus of two individuals on an object, event, or person
- achieved via pointing, eye gaze, verbal cues
Attachment
the emotional bond between infants and their caregivers
- evolutionary foundations: infants cant survive without caregiver
- infants and caregivers both developed behaviors that promote attachment
(seek proximity, separation distress)
Harlow’s Monkey Studies
wire monkey mom with food vs. cloth monkey mom for comfort
- where does baby monkey spend the most time?
Results: more time with cloth mom
- shows attachment is not just about physical needs, but also seeking comfort
Bowlby’s Theory of Attachment
infants instinctual responses promote attachment over the first 2 yrs
Primary purpose of attachment:
- reciprocal emotional relationship with caregiver provides security while exploring/learning
- internal working model
- attachment quality can vary
Internal Working Model
(part of Attachment Theory)
a mental representation of relationships that children construct as a result of their experience with caregivers
- provides a guide for future interactions with others
The Strange Situation Task
designed to test the quality of the infant-caregiver relationship
child’s behaviors are observed around stranger, caregiver, stranger + caregiver, and alone
- how does the child balance security and exploration?
- does the child display separation anxiety?
- how is the child comforted when the caregiver returns?
Secure Attachment
comfort/security and exploration are balanced
- 62% (most common)
Types of Insecure Attacment
Anxious-avoidant
Anxious-resistant
Disorganized
Anxious-avoidant Attachment
exploration > security (15%)
- avoids caregiver while playing
- fails to greet her when she returns
Anxious-resistant Attachment
security > exploration (9%)
- clingy while playing
- distressed when left alone
- resists comfort
Disorganized Attachment
infant lacks an organized response (15%)
- ex: calm then angry, fearful while approaching
- associated with neglect and maltreatment
Attachment Disorders
very rare, almost all children form an attachment with their caregiver
- Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD)
- Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder
Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD)
child is withdrawn and unable to form attachments with caregivers
- associated with history of maltreatment
Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder
child indiscriminately forms relationships and does not form special attachment with caregivers
- associated with history of institutionalized care
Language
a communicative system for combining sounds to create new meanings
- symbolic representation of things
- can represent past, present, and future
Noam Chomsky’s argues…
language acquisition must be driven by biology because learning cannot explain how rapidly it happens
- “poverty of the stimulus”
Chomsky’s observations…
- language is specific to the human species
- all humans develop language, regardless of cultures, with universal language development milestones
- language acquisition is seemingly effortless, no explicit teaching necessary
- specific brain regions are involved in processing language production and comprehension
Poverty of the Stimulus
perception that the amount of exposure to language stimuli in infancy is not sufficient to support learning of a complex language -Chomsky
(FALSE - children learn quick, exposed to a ton of language)
the Nativist Theory of Language Aquisition includes…
(Noam Chomsky)
- universal grammar
- language acquisition device (LAD)
- poverty of the stimulus
- no longer has much support bc it doesn’t acknowledge environmental factors
Universal Grammar
(part of Nativist Lang. Acq. Theory)
due to genetics, all humans will develop language that conforms to similar basic set of rules
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
(part of Nativist Lang. Acq. Theory)
innate “program” that is present at birth and guides language acquisition
- triggered by maturation
Interactionism
more commonly accepted today (over Nativism)
- some features of language system are “set up” by biological system (nature)
- other features require exposure to native language (nurture)
Perceptual Scaffolding
development of early perceptual skills provides a foundation for language acquisition
ex of early skills:
- auditory perception
- preference for speech
- phoneme discrimination
- preference for child directed speech
Exposure to your native language (environment/context) drives….
- phoneme discrimination
- word segmentation
- word recognition
- syntax/grammar
- pragmatics
Word Segmentation (7-8 mo)
identifying boundaries between words
- 7-8 month old infants recognize familiar words in a continuous stream of speech
7-8 month old infants are able to recognize familiar words because of…
child directed speech:
- stress patterns cute word boundaries
statistical learning:
- infants can detect word boundaries based on probability of syllables coming together
Vocabulary Development
the process of acquiring new words
2 pieces:
- receptive vocab
- productive vocab
- Receptive always develops before Productive
Receptive Vocabulary (phases)
- 4.5 mo: recognize sound of their own name
- 6 mo: understand words for highly familiar objects
- 9 mo: understand common expressions
- 2 years: 200-500 words
Children learn language so fast because…
they have assumptions that constrain learning and facilitate learning of new vocab
- whole object bias
- mutual exclusivity constraint
- fast mapping
Whole-object Bias
assumption that a word refers to the entire object
Mutual Exclusivity Constraint
assumption that one word per object, new words for new objects
Fast Mapping
children are able to learn new words based on a single exposure
Producing Sounds (phases)
- 8-12 wks: cooing
- 7 mo: babbling
- 9-18 mo: variegated babbling / jargoning
Cooing (8-12 wks)
newborns are learning to use vocal machinery
Babbling (7 mo)
repetitive vocalizing that combines a consonant and vowel sound
- lateralized to left hemisphere
Variegated Babbling / Jargoning (9-18 mo)
babbling with stress and intonation of actual speech of native language
- communicative
Productive Vocabulary (phases)
- 8-12 mo: first word
- 13-14 mo: 8-10 words
- 18 mo: 50 words, followed by an exponential increase in vocab
- related to # of words > age
Social Influences on language acquisition….
“Incidental Learning”: no explicit teaching necessary
- statistical learning shows how more exposure supports word segmentation
- but, child directed speech (environment) enhances word segmentation
18 month vocabulary can be predicted by…
- joint attention with caregiver in first year
- amount and type of caregiver gesturing
Experiments on influence of live social interaction….
1) Kuhl: 9-10 month olds
- learning phonemic contrast
2) Rosenberry: 24-30 month olds
- learning new words
Kuhl’s experiment…
- 9-10 month olds
- looking at how infants learn phonemic contrast between languages
- mandarin speakers vs english speakers
- Live vs Audio vs TV learning
Results:
- live group = native group
- audio/visual group = no learning
Conclusion:
live interaction very important for learning
Rosenberry’s experiment…
- 24-30 month olds
- looking at how toddlers learn new words
- Live vs Facetime vs Recorded facetime
Results:
- live and facetime = learn
- recorded = no learn
Conclusion:
word learning depends on contingent social interaction (engagement and response important)
Sensitive Period
- 0 to 5-8 years old
period of time when language develops readily
Second Language learning…
age of acquisition = different brain organization
- language usually processed by left brain
- learn 2nd language later in life = more likely to use both sides of brain
ex) study of immigrants: 2nd language proficiency based on age of first exposure, not length of exposure
Newport’s “Less is More” Hypothesis
limitations in perception and cognition allow children to process smaller chunks of language
- maturation interferes with rapid language acquisition
Recall: In the Sensorimotor stage…
- infants organize the world via their senses and actions
- achievements: object knowledge, control of actions
- limitations: little internal representation
In the Pre-Operational period (2-6 years)…
- early childhood
- major achievement: symbolic thinking
- major limit: one sided thinking
4 Stages of Play:
1) Practice play
2) Constructive play
3) Symbolic / sociodramatic play
4) Games with rules
Practice play
repeat behavior for sheer joy of it
(sensorimotor stage)
Constructive play
build or make something for the purpose of play
Symbolic / Sociodramatic play
use symbolic representation and imagination for play
Games with rules
make up rules for a game or play games with already established rules
Mental Operations (pre-op limitation)
combining, separating, or transforming information in a logical manner
- young children unable to consistently use logic
One-Sided Thinking
inability to focus on more than one piece of information at a time
- conservation tasks
- appearance vs reality
- egocentric thinking
Maynard the Cat Study
tests holding multiple pieces of info at once (dual encoding)
3 yrs: think Maynard is a dog after dog mask put on
6 yrs: know Maynard is still a cat
Egocentrism
to consider the world entirely from one’s own view
ex: Sally and Anne task
Theory of Mind
the ability to think about other people’s mental states and form theories of how they think
- assessed using False-Belief tasks (Sally and Anne)
Sally and Anne Task
tests Theory of Mind
must be able to separate what we know from what Sally knows
young children: box
4-5 years: basket
Piaget’s critics say…
- cognitive development occurs continuously
- symbolic thinking may not be fully developed by early childhood
- multiple cognitive skills develop at the same time
Recall: Information Processing Theory…
thought process is like a computer, step by step process
- incremental, gradual changes
- cognitive difficulties due to limitations
Episodic Memory
remembering daily events, key part of long term memory
- uses scripts
Scripts
support retrieval of memories for familiar events
- more detailed with age
- often incorporated into imaginary play
- deviations from script stand out
Sam Stone Study
tests recall error
Sam Stone visits and says hi, children are interviewed in different ways
- manipulation increases recall error
- effect stronger in younger children
Executive Functions
a set of skills that support goal directed behavior
- holding multiple thoughts
- following rules, controlling behavior
- changing behavior when demands change
Inhibitory Control
ability to refrain from making a cognitive or behavioral response (even if it has already been initiated)
- Delay of Gratification
ex: Mischel’s Marshmallow Task
Development of executive functions…
rapid development in preschool years, continues through teen and adult years
(reflects development of prefrontal cortex - myelination)
supports cognitive regulatory processes
Hot and Cold Responding
Hot = emotional response, develops early
Cold = cognitive response, develops 3-6 yrs
(develops with executive functions)
Self-Regulation
ability to alter subjective experiences, behaviors, and responses in ways that are efficient, adaptive, and in your best interest
- supported by executive functions
- can predict later outcomes
Tools of the Mind
school readiness intervention
organized to promote self-regulation
- improved executive function skills
- improved academic achievement
Social Development
2 sided process where children simultaneously become differentiated as distinctive individuals and integrated into the larger social community
- personality development
- socialization
Personality development
children develop unique patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving across a wide variety of circumstances
- self concept
Socialization
acquiring the standards, values, and knowledge of their society
Self-Concept
the way in which individuals see themselves in relation to the world
- subjective self
- objective self
- self esteem
Subjective Self
understand that the self is distinct from others, a person who exists over time
- start seeing in toddlerhood
Objective Self
(18-24 months)
awareness of one’s own characteristics
ex: young child’s description of themselves is very concrete, loosely connected
Children develop more complex emotions at…
3-4 years
- self conscious emotions
Self-conscious Emotions
emotions that depend on a sense of self
- Pride: feeling satisfied based on an achievement
- Guilt: think about negative aspects of something you’ve done, promotes behavior change
- Shame: attribute bad behavior to aspect of self that cannot be changes
Development of emotional regulation…
- early regulation HIGHLY dependent on caregiver (co-regulation)
- child progressively becomes more able to regulate their own behavior (self-regulation)
Friendship
shared sentiments, reciprocity, voluntary shared experiences
Early childhood friendships…
- play based
- 4-5 yrs: 3/4 have one close friend, 3/10 have >1
- a lot of “best friends” until 11 yrs
Aggression
committing an act intending to hurt another person
- Proactive vs Reactive
- Physical vs Relational
Proactive (instrumental) aggression
goal is to obtain something
- based on reasoning
Reactive aggression
in response to a perceived provocation
- based on emotion
Physical aggression
a physical act or threat intended to harm another person
Relational aggression
an act that is intended to harm a relationship
Gender differences in aggression…
boys are not more aggressive than girls
boys = more physical aggression
girls = more relational aggression
- White Crayons Study
Life-Course Persistence Model
most children learn to regulate aggression by middle school, but some children continue to be aggressive later
- significant risk factor for developmental outcomes
Prosocial Behavior
voluntary actions intended to benefit others
ex: sharing, helping, cooperation
- requires empathy
Empathy
the ability to feel with another person and respond emotionally in a similar way
- Infancy: crying when others are upset
- Toddlerhood: purposeful helping behaviors
- Early Childhood: ability to take other’s perspectives, communicate with words
Identification
a psychological process in which children try to look, act, feel, and be like significant people in their social environment
- consistent with social roles
Social Roles
categories that reflect social expectations
- gender identity
- ethnic and racial identity
Gender Stereotypes…
children very sensitive, start learning them very early
- can be seen by age 3
Theories on Gender Identification
- behaviorism
- social learning theory
- gender self socialization theory
Behaviorism on gender…
adults consciously or unconsciously reinforce gender appropriate behaviors
- positive and negative reinforcement
Social Learning Theory on gender…
children imitate behaviors associated with gender roles
- enforced by society (even if parents don’t)
Gender Self-Socialization Theory
gender identity reflects one’s own thoughts and feelings about belonging to one’s gender
- no predefined masculine or feminine characteristics
- 5 identity dimensions
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
stage theory based on moral reasoning abilities (cognitive skills)
Level 1: Pre-Conventional (Early childhood)
- oriented towards obedience and avoid punishment, self-interest
ex: The Heinz Dilemma: was it okay to steal the medicine?
Family Dynamics
describes patterns of interactions among family members
- dynamic, always changing
- Recall Ecological Systems Theory: microsystems
Baumrind Model
defines parenting in 2 dimensions
1) Warmth / Responsiveness: acceptance of child, emotional involvement
2) Control / Demanding: extent to which rules are set forth and enforced
Sub categories:
- authoritarian
- permissive
- authoritative
- disengaged
Authoritarian
control > warmth
use punitive measures to control child’s behavior; obedience is emphasized
Permissive
warmth > control
generally affectionate but exercise little explicit control; allow child to determine own activities
Authoritative
control = warmth
attempt to control child by reasoning with them; emphasize achievement and independence
- link to good self regulation
Disengaged
no warmth, no control
minimal attempts at controlling or displaying affection towards child
- link to poor self regulation
Socioeconomic Status (SES)
an index reflecting relative ranking on a combination of valued commodities (income, education, occupation)
- 20% of US children in poverty
SES effects on cognitive development…
- language: over 2 yrs behind by school entry, children hear less language in lower SES homes
- memory: less effective memory encoding as early as 9 months, cumulative effect
Interventions for lower SES gap
1) Providence Talks
2) Cherokee Indians natural experiment
3) Baby’s First Years
Providence Talks
intervention for “30 million word gap”
- daily word counts and in home training sessions
- increased # of words produced
- especially effective for those under 50th percentile
Cherokee Indians natural experiment
1996 casino earnings raised above poverty line
- decreased behavior problems
- higher graduation rates
- greatest benefit for youngest children
- indirect effects through parenting quality
Baby’s First Years
randomly assign 1000 low income mothers and newborns to receive $333 a month or $20 a month
- neural differences seen in infancy
Level of stress experienced by affluent, high achieving children is similar to those who:
- live in poverty / foster care
- are immigrants
- have incarcerated parents
