MODULES 1 and 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are prokaryotic organisms?

A

They are just one prokaryotic cell ( single cellular) Eg. bacteria

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2
Q

What are Eukaryotic organisms?

A

Made up of many eukaryotic cells (multi cellular) Eg. plants and animals

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3
Q

Differences between a plant and animal cell?

A

Plant has all organelles in an animal cell plus: Cell wall with plasmodesmata Vacuole Chloroplasts

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4
Q

Description and function of plasma (cell surface) membrane?

A

Found on surface of animal cells, and inside cell wall of plant cells and prokaryotic cells. Made up mainly of lipids and protein Regulates movement of substances in and out of the cell Has receptor molecules that allow it to respond to chemicals like hormones

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5
Q

Description and function of cell wall?

A

Rigid structure that surrounds plant cells it’s mainly made of cellulose Supports plant cells

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6
Q

Description and function of the nucleus?

A

A large organelle surrounded by a nuclear envelope (double membrane) which contains many pores Contains chromatin (made up from DNA and proteins), and a structure called the nucleolus Controls the cells activities by controlling the transcription of DNA DNA contains instructions to make proteins The pores allow substances to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasum The nucleolus makes ribosomes

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7
Q

Description and function of lysosomes?

A

A round organelle surrounded by a membrane Contains digestive enzymes which are kept separate from the cytoplasm by the surrounding membrane Used to digest invading cells or to break down worn out components of the cell

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8
Q

Description and function of a ribosome?

A

Very small organelle which either floats free in the cytoplasm, or is attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum Site where proteins are made

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9
Q

Description and function of Rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

A system of membranes covered with ribosomes Folds and processes proteins which have been made at the ribosomes

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10
Q

Description and function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Similar to RER except no ribosomes Synthesises and processes lipids

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11
Q

Description and function of a vesicle?

A

Small fluid filled sac in the cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane Transports substances in and out of the cell

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12
Q

Description and function of the golgi apparatus?

A

Fluid filled membrane bound flattened sacs Processes and packages new lipids and proteins Also makes lysosomes

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13
Q

Description and function of a mitochondrion?

A

Have a double membrane Inner one is folded to form cristae Inside is the matrix which contains enzmyes for respiration Site of aerobic respiration and where ATP is produced

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14
Q

Description and function of a choroplast?

A

Surrounded by a double membrane, and has membranes inside thylakoid membranes, which stack into grana Grana are linked together by lamellae Site of photosynthesis

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15
Q

Description and function of centrioles?

A

Small hollow cyclinders made of microtubules Involved in seperation of chromosomes

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16
Q

Description and function of Cilia?

A

Hair like substances found on the surface membrane of some animal cells Cross section has a ring of 9 pairs of protein microtubules inside with a pair in the middle aswell Allows movements of substances on the cell surface

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17
Q

Description and function of a flagellum?

A

Like Cilia except longer Propels cells

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18
Q

How are organelles involved in protein production?

A

Proteins are made at the ribosomes The Ribosomes on the rough endoplasmic reticulum make proteins that are excreted or attached to the cell membrane New proteins produced at the rough endoplasmic reticulum are folded and processed (sugar chains added) by the rough endoplasmic reticulum Then they are transported from the rough ER to the golgi apparatus in vesicles At the golgi apparatus the proteins undergo further processing Proteins enter more vesicles and are secreted out of the cell

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19
Q

What is the cytoskeleton of a cell?

A

Network of protein threads running through a cell, arranged as microfilaments (small solid strands) and microtubules (tiny protein cylinders)

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20
Q

4 Main functions of the cytoskeleton?

A

The microtubules and microfilaments support the cell’s organelles, keeping them in position. Helps strengthen the cell and maintain it’s shape Responsible for movement of materials within the cell, eg. chromosomes when they separate during cell division, relies on contraction of microtubules in the spindle Can cause the cell to move, eg in cillia or flagellum

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21
Q

How does a prokaryote’s cell size comapare to a eukaryote’ss cell size?

A

prokaryote’s cell size is very small (less than 2 um diameter Eukaryotes much larger, (10-100 um)

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22
Q

What’s the DNA like in a prokaryote’s cell compared to a eukrayotes cell?

A

prokaryote’s cell DNA is circular, whilst a eukaryotes is linear

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23
Q

Where is the DNA found in a prokaryote’s cell compared to a eukaryotes cell?

A

In a prokaryote’s cell there is no nucleus, so DNA is free in the cytoplasm Whereas in a eukaryote, nucleus is present so it’s found within the nucleus

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24
Q

What’s the cell wall in prokaryote’s cell like compared to a eukaryotes cell?

A

In a prokaryote’s cell it’s made of a polysaccharide, but not cellulose or chitin No cell wall in animal cells, cellulose in plants and chitin in fungi

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25
Q

How do the amount and type of organelles in a prokaryote’s cell compare to a eukaryotes cell?

A

In a prokaryote’s cell very few organelles and none are membrane bound In a eukaryotes cell, many membrane bound organelles present

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26
Q

How do the ribosomes differ in a prokaryote’s cell compared to a eukaryotes cell?

A

Small ribosomes in a prokaryote’s cell, and larger ribsomes in a eukaryotic cell

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27
Q

Structure of a bacterial cell?

A

Flagellum to propel cell DNA (bacterial chromosome) Plasmid (ring of DNA) Plasma membrane Cell wall Ribosomes

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28
Q

Magnification definition and formula?

A

How much bigger the image is than the specimen Magnification = image size / object size

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29
Q

Resolution definition?

A

How well a microscope can distinguish between 2 points that are really close to each other

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30
Q

How to convert between mm, um and nm?

A

mm = 1m x 10^-3 um= 1m x 10^-6 nm= 1m x 10^-9

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31
Q

Features of a light microscope?

A

Uses light Have lower resolution that electron microscopes (0.2um) Maximum magnification of a light microscope is x1500

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32
Q

Features of a scanning confocal microscope?

A

Use laser beams on a specimen tagged with fluorescent dye Laser causes dye to fluoresce, which is directed through a pinhole onto a detector connected to a computer which can produce a 3D image Pinhole creates a clearer image, as all out of focus light is blocked Can look at specimens at different depths

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33
Q

Features of a transmission electron microscope?

A

Uses electromagnets to focus a beam of electrons which is transmitted through the specimen, in which denser parts of the specimen absborb more electrons, which then appear darker in the image Only work on thin specimens Resolution of 0.0002 um Magnification of more than 1,000,000

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34
Q

Features of a scanning electron microscope?

A

Scans a beam of electrons across the specimen, knocking electrons off, which are collected in a cathode ray tube to form an image. Image can be 3D Resolution 0.002 um Magnification x 500,000

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35
Q

Using a light microscope, how do prevent the problem of the sample being transparent so the electrons pass straight through?

A

Can stain the sample, different parts take more up than others the contrast makes different parts show up

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36
Q

How do you stain samples for an electron microscope?

A

Objects are dipped into a solution of heavy metal, the metal ions scatter the electrons creating contrast again

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37
Q

How do you prepare a dry mount?

A

Use tweezers to put specimen on a slide, and put a cover slip on top

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38
Q

How do you prepare a wet mount?

A

Pipette a small drop of water onto the slide, use tweezers to put your specimen on top of water drop Put a cover slip on avoiding air bubbles Add a stain to one side of your specimen and put paper towel opposite side to draw it in

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39
Q

How do you find the value of each eye piece unit of an eyepiece graticule?

A

Use a stage micrometer, to measure what eyepiece unit is worth, need to re calibrate for different magnifications

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40
Q

Functions of water inside and outside of cells?

A

Water is a reactant in many important chemical reactions It’s a solvent, so allows biological reactions to take place in solution Water transports substances, liquid and a solvent so very useful can transport substances such as glucose and oxygen Helps temperature control as has a high specific heat capacity and high latent heat of evaporation It’s a habitat`

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41
Q

Why is water a polar molecule and what does this allow it to do?

A

Oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen, so attracts the electrons more making the oxygen delta negative, and the hydrogen’s delta positive Hydrogen bonding, as the delta positve hydrogen’s are attracted to the delta negative electrons of other water molecules

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42
Q

How can hydrogen bonding give water a high specific heat capacity?

A

Specific heat capacity is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of substance by 1 degree Hydrogen bonds between water molecules can absorb a lot of energy, meaning water requires a lot of energy to heat up Meaning it has a very stable temperature

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43
Q

How do hydrogen bonds give water a high latent heat of evaportation?

A

Hydrogen bonds mean that it takes a lot of energy to break the intermolecular forces between water molecules, so a lot of energy used up when water evaporates Good for cooling organisms, as when sweat evaporates it cools the surface of the skin

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44
Q

What’s cohesion and why are water molecules very cohesive and what does this help them do?

A

Is the attraction water molecules of the same type Occurs in water molecules as they are polar Helps them flow so they are good for transporting substances

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45
Q

How does water’s polarity make it a good solvent?

A

It can dissolve salts as the delta positively charged hydrogen’s will surround the negatively charged ions, and the delta negative oxygens will surround the positively charged ions, seperating out the salt causing it to dissolve

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46
Q

Why is water less dense when it is a solid?

A

Water molecules are held further apart in ice than they are in liquid, because each water molecule forms 4 hydrogen bonds to other water molecules making a lattice shape This is why ice floats

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47
Q

Why is ice floating useful to living organisms?

A

Ice acts as an insulating layer on top of the water, so the water bellow doesn’t freeze killing the living organisms

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48
Q

Most carbohydrates are polymers, what’s a polymer?

A

A molecule made up of many similar, smaller monomers bonded together

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49
Q

Structure of glucose?

A

It’s a hexose ( 6 carbon) monosaccharide Alpha glucose: starting at top right then going clockwise C1 bonded to CH2OH O C2 bonded to H above and OH bellow C3 bonded to H above and OH bellow C4 bonded to OH above and H bellow C6 OH bellow and H above Beta: the same as alpha, except on C2 OH is above, and H is bellow

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50
Q

How is glucose’s structure related to it’s function?

A

It’s the main energy source in animals as it’s structure makes it soluble, so can be transported easily, and it’s chemical bonds contain a lot of energy

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51
Q

What’s ribose?

A

Monosaccharide with five carbon atoms so it’s a pentose sugar Structure starting from Top of pentagon: O C1 OH above and H bellow C2 H above and OH bellow C3 H above and OH bellow C4 H bellow and CH2OH above

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52
Q

What elements do carbohydrates consist of?

A

Carbon Oxygen Hydroged

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53
Q

How do 2 monosaccharides bond together?

A

Via a condensation reaction A hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide binds to the OH group of another monosaccharide releasing a molecule of water, and forming a glycosidic bond (both molecules binded to each other by an oxygen) This a condensation reaction Forms a disaccharide

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54
Q

What’s the reverse of a condensation reaction?

A

A hydrolysis reaction, water is removed to split a molecule

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55
Q

What does the disaccharide maltose consist of?

A

2 molecules of alpha glucose binded to each other via a glycosidic bond

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56
Q

What does the disaccharide sucrose consist of?

A

When alpha glucose and fructose join together via a glycosidic bond

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57
Q

What does the disaccharide Lactose consist of?

A

When Beta glucose is bonded to galactose

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58
Q

What’s a polysaccharide?

A

When more than 2 monosaccharides join together

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59
Q

What do plants store excess glucose as?

A

Starch, when a plant needs energy breaks it down into glucose

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60
Q

What does starch consist of?

A

A mixture of the 2 polysaccharides of alpha glucose amylose and amylopectin

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61
Q

Describe the structure of amylose?

A

A long unbranched chain of alpha glucose. The angles of glycosidic bonds give it a coiled structure Condense structure makes it good for storage as can fit more into a smaller space

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62
Q

Describe the structure of amylopectin?

A

A long branched chain of alpha glucose, it’s side chains allow the enzymes that break down the molecule to get at the molecule to break the glycosidic bonds. So glucose can be released quickly

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63
Q

How do animal cells store glucose?

A

Store it as glycogen, another polysaccharide of glucose

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64
Q

Structure of glycogen?

A

Polysaccharide of alpha glucose, similar to amylopectin, except that it has far more side branches coming off it, so energy can be released more readily, which is good for animals

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65
Q

Why is it useful that starch is insoluble in water?

A

Means it doesn’t cause water to enter cells via osmosis, which would make them swell

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66
Q

Describe the structure and function of hydrogen bonds?

A

Long unbranched chains of beta glucose, the cellulose chains are linked by hydrogen bonds to form strong fibres called microfibrils The strong fibres provide strucutral support for the cell, eg. in plant walls

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67
Q

Explain the general structure of a triglyceride?

A

Glycerol bonded to 3 fatty acid chains Fatty acid chains are made of hydrocarbons (compounds that only contain hydrogen and carbon) The tails are hydrophobic, meaning the tails are insoluble in water

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68
Q

What elements do lipids contain?

A

Carbon, Oxygen and Hydrogen

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69
Q

How are triglycerides synthesised?

A

By the formation of an ester bond between each fatty acid and the glycerol molecule A condensation reaction occurs, between the OH group on the glycerol (prop-tri-ol) and the OH of the carboxylic group at the end of the hydrocarbon chain.

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70
Q

What’s the process of synthesising a triglyceride called?

A

Esterfication

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71
Q

What’s the type of reaction called which breaks down a triglyceride?

A

Hydrolysis

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72
Q

What’s a saturated fatty acid?

A

Hydrocarbon chain containing no double carbon carbon double bonds (saturated with hydrogen)

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73
Q

What’s an unsaturated fatty acid?

A

Hydrocarbon chain which has at least one carbon carbon double bond, causing it to kink

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74
Q

Structure of phospholipids?

A

The same as a triglyceride, except missing a fatty acid chain, in replace for a phosphate group in the other direction. The phosphate group is hydrophillic (attracted to water) and the and the fatty acid chains are hydrophobic

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75
Q

Why are triglycerides good energy storage molecules in animals and plants?

A

The hydrocarbon tails contain a lot of chemical energy when they are broken down They are insoluble, so don’t affect water potential of cell, causing water to move in via osmosis, they are insoluble as Triglycerides bundle together as insoluble droplets, as glycerol shields hydrophobic fatty acid chains as they all face inwards to form a sphere

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76
Q

Describe the structure and function of a phospholipid bilayer?

A

Formed from a double layer of phospholipids, tails facing inwards as hydrophobic and phosphate heads facing outwards as hydrophillic Centre of the bilayer is hydrophobic, preventing water soluble substances passing through

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77
Q

What are the monomers of proteins?

A

Amino acids

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78
Q

What is a dipeptide?

A

When 2 amino acids join together

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79
Q

What is a a polypeptide?

A

When more than 2 amino acids join together

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80
Q

What are proteins made up of?

A

One or more polypeptides

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81
Q

General structure of an amino acid?

A

Carbon in centre Amine group to the left (NH2) Carboxylic group to the right (COOH) Hydrogen bellow R group above

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82
Q

What separates all amino acids?

A

They have different R groups

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83
Q

How are amino acids joined together?

A

A condensation reaction occurs between the OH of the Carboxylic group and the H of the amine group, removing water and forming a peptide bond

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84
Q

How do you split 2 amino acids?

A

Via a hydrolysis reaction

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85
Q

What’s the primary structure of a protein?

A

The sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain

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86
Q

What’s the secondary structure of a protein?

A

When hydrogen bonds form between nearby amino acids This makes it coil into an alpha helix, or fold into a beta pleated sheet, this is the secondary structure

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87
Q

What’s the tertiary structure of a protein?

A

The coiled or folded chain of amino acids is often coiled and folded further. More bonds form between different parts of the polypeptide chain, forming their final 3D structure

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88
Q

What’s the Quaternary structure of a protein?

A

When a protein is made of several different polypeptide bonds held together by bonds, the quartenary structure is the way these polypeptide chains are assembled together Eg. haemoglobin is made up of 4 polypeptide chains

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89
Q

What bonds are present in the primary structure of a protein?

A

Peptide bonds

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90
Q

What bonds are present in secondary structure?

A

Hydrogen bonds

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91
Q

What bonds are present in tertiary structure?

A

Ionic bonds between negatively charged R groups, and positively charged charged R groups Disulfide bonds, forms between 2 amino acids of csyteine, as it’s sulphur containing Hydrophobic and hydrophillic interactions Hydrogen bonds

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92
Q

What elements do proteins contain?

A

All contain Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen Some contain sulphur

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93
Q

Structure of a globular protein?

A

Hydrophillic R groups on the outside, making them soluble, so they’re easily transported in fluids

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94
Q

Structure and function of the globular protein haemoglobin?

A

Carries oxygen around the body in red blood cells It’s a conjugated protein meaning it’s a protein with a non protein group attached (prosthetic group) So each prosthetic group has a prosthetic group called haem, which contains iron, which oxygen binds to

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95
Q

Structure and function of the lipid cholesterol?

A

Has a hydrocarbon ring structure, attached to a hydrocarbon tail. The ring structure has a polar hydroxyl OH group attached to it Helps strengthen the cell membrane, by interacting with the phopholipid bilayer Has a small size and flattened shape, so can fit in between the phospholipid molecules in the membrane They bind to hyrophobic tails of the phospholipids, causing them to pack together more closely, this helps the membrane be less fluid and more rigid

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96
Q

Structure and function of the globular protein insulin?

A

Hormone secreted by the pancreas, helps regulate blood glucose level. Solubility important, as it can be transported in the blood to the tissues where it acts Consists of 2 polypeptide chains which are held together by disulphide bonds

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97
Q

Structure and function of the globular protein amylase?

A

Enzyme, that catalyses the breakdown of starch in the digestive system Made of a single chain of amino acids, it’s secondary structure contains both alpha helix, and beta pleated sheets

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98
Q

3 Types of fibrous proteins?

A

Collagen Keratin Elastin All insoluble, strong and structural

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99
Q

Structure and function of the fibrous protein collagen?

A

Found in animal connective tissue (bone, muscle) Very strong, minerals can bind to increase it’s rigidity

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100
Q

Structure and function of the fibrous protein keratin?

A

Found in external structures of animals, eg skin, hair and nails Can be flexible or very tough

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101
Q

Structure and function of elastin?

A

Found in elastic connective tissue, such as skin and large blood vessels Elastic so allows tissues to return to their original shape after being stretched

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102
Q

What’s an ion with a positive charge called?

A

Cation

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103
Q

What’s an ion with a negative charge called?

A

Anion

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104
Q

What does the inorganic ion Ca2+ do?

A

Involved in the transmission of nerve impulses Involved in release of insulin from pancreas Acts as a cofactor for many enzymes Important for many enzymess

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105
Q

What does the inorganic ion Na+ do?

A

Important in generating nerve impulses for muscle contraction Regulating fluid balance in the body

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106
Q

What does the inorganic ion K+ do?

A

Important in generating nerve impulses for muscle contraction Regulating fluid balance in the body Activates essential enzymes needed for photosynthesis

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107
Q

What does the inorganic ion H+ do?

A

Affects the pH of substances Important for photosynthesis reactions that occur in the thylakoid membranes inside chloroplasts

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108
Q

What does the inorganic ion NH4+ do?

A

Absorbed from soil by plants as an important source of Nitrogen

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109
Q

What does the inorganic ion NO3 - (nitrate) do?

A

Absorbed from soil by plants, and is an important source of Nitrogen

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110
Q

What does the inorganic ion HCO3- (hydrogen carbonate) do?

A

Acts as a buffer, which helps maintain the pH in the blood

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111
Q

What does the inorganic ion Cl- do?

A

Involved in the chloride shift, which helps maintain the pH of the blood during gas exchange Acts as a cofactor for amylase

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112
Q

What does the inorganic ion PO4(3-) do?

A

Involved in photosynthesis and respiration reactions Needed for synthesis of nucleotides

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113
Q

What does the inorganic ion OH- do?

A

Affects the pH of substances

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114
Q

What are reducing sugars?

A

All the monosacchardies, and the disacharides maltose and lactose

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115
Q

How do you test for a reducing sugar?

A

Add benedict’s reagent and heat, will go from blue to brick red The higher the concentration of the reducing sugar, the further the colour change

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116
Q

How do you test for a non reducing sugar?

A

If the test for the reducing sugar is negative, then add dilute HCl and heat in a water bath Nuetralise it with Sodium Now do the Benedict’s test again

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117
Q

What can be used to test for glucose?

A

Test strips

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118
Q

How can you test for starch?

A

Add Iodine dissolved in potassium iodide solution, if present, sample will change from browny orange to a dark blue/black colour

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119
Q

Can you test for proteins?

A

Use the Biruet test Solution needs to be alkaline, so add a few drops sodium hydroxide solution Add some copper sulphate solution, if it goes stays blue there’s no protein, if goes purple protein is present

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120
Q

How do you test for lipids?

A

The emulsion test Shake the substance with ethanol then pour into water Solution will go milky if a lipid is present

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121
Q

How do you use calorimetry to measure the concentration of a glucose solution?

A

Create glucose concentrations using dilution factor 2 on 40m/M to create a 20, 10, 5 and 2.5 and a negative control of water You will have added benedict’s reagent, so the higher the concentration gradient of glucose, the lower the absorbance as more benedict’s reagent used up, as will have also remove precipitate by centrifuging it Now create a calibration curve by plotting absorbance on y axis, and concentration on x axis (use red filter) Now can use graph to find link the absorbance of a solution with an unknown concentration, with it’s concentration

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122
Q

What’s a biosensor?

A

A device that uses a biological molecule such as an enzyme

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123
Q

How would you use paper chromatography to identify unknown amino acids?

A

Have a mobile phase, a liquid solvent which allows the amino acids to move Have a stationary phase, where the molecules can’t move eg chromatography paper Put concentrated dots of the amino acids at the end of the chromatography paper, put in solvent and they’ll move up the paper at different rates so they’ll seperate out Spray with ninhydrin spray, to make them purple so more visible Calculate the R value of each value (distance moved by amino acid/ distance moved by solvent) then compare R value with a data base to work out what amino acids they are)

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124
Q
A
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125
Q

Function of an enzyme?

A

To speed up metabolic reactions, by acting as a biological catalyst

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126
Q

An example of an intracellular enzyme (works within cells)?

A

The enzyme catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide to harmless oxygen and water Hydrogen peroxide is the toxic by product of some cellular reactions, and can kill cells

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127
Q

2 Examples of extracellular enzymes (work outside cells)?

A

The enzyme Amylase is found in saliva and is secreted into the mouth by cells in the saliva gland, it catalyses the hydrolyses of starch into maltose The enzyme trypsin catalyses the hydrolysis of peptide bonds so breaks down large polypeptides. It’s produced in the pancreas, and secreted into the small intestine

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128
Q

What type of protein are enzymes?

A

Globular

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129
Q

What do enzymes have which makes them specific to certain molecules?

A

An active site with a specific shape, which is where the molecule binds to, so they have to be complementary

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130
Q

What level of structure determines the active site?

A

Tertiary structure

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131
Q

How do enzymes reduce activation energy and therefore speed up the rate of reaction?

A

When a substance binds to an enzyme, an enzyme substrate complex is formed, this then lowers the activation energy (amount of energy that needs to be supplied to the chemicals before the reaction will start) If 2 substrate molecules need to be joined, then attaching the enzyme holds them closer together, reducing any repulsion between the molecules so they can bind more easily If the enzyme is catalysing a break down reaction, fitting into the active site puts a strain on the bonds in the substrate, this strain means the substrate molecule breaks up more easily

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132
Q

Describe the lock and key model?

A

The substrate binds to the active site of the enzyme as complementary , and forms an enzyme substrate complex An enzyme product complex is then formed and products are released, leaving the enzyme unchanged after the reaction

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133
Q

What does the induced fit model add to the lock and key model?

A

That when the substrate binds to active site, the active site changes shape slightly to fit the substrate more closely

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134
Q

Explain the process of heating an enzyme up to denaturation?

A

Initially rate of reaction will increase, as the increase in thermal energy means an increase in kinetic energy, meaning molecules move faster so more frequent collisions and also more successful collisions, so more enzyme substrate complexes formed per unit time. However if temperature reaches a certain point, starts to denature. The rise in temperature makes the molecules vibrate more, which then starts to break bonds in tertiary structure (weakest to strongest). Causes tertiary shape to change, and enzyme and substrate are no longer complementary

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135
Q

What is the temperature coefficient (Q10)?

A

Shows how much the rate of reaction changes when there’s an incresase of 10 degrees Before the optimum enzymes have a value of around 2

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136
Q

What can a different pH do to the optimum, do to an enzyme?

A

H+ ions and OH- ions can disrupt the hydrogen and ionic bonds, causing the tertiary structure to change and therefore the active, decreasing the rate of reaction

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137
Q

What does increasing the enzyme concentration do?

A

Makes it more likely for a substrate and an enzyme to collide and for an enzyme-substrate complex, therefore increases the rate of reaction, but only up to a certain point as if there’s a limited amount of substrate

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138
Q

What’s the saturation point?

A

When adding more substrate doesn’t make a difference, as all the active sites are taken up

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139
Q

2 ways to measure the rate of an enzyme controlled reaction?

A

Measure how fast the product of the reaction appears, eg in the reaction of catalase on hydrogen peroxide, measure how much Oxygen is produced in an upside down cylinder in water Can measure the disappearance of substrate, eg the enzyme amylase catalyses the reaction of starch to maltose, so during the reaction can keep adding sample to pottasium iodide and iodine solution, untill it doesn’t go blue/black, then you know all starch has disappeared.

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140
Q

What’s a cofactor?

A

Non protein substance, that attaches to an enzyme allowing it to work

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141
Q

Example of a inorganic cofactor?

A

Chloride ion, helps amylase enzyme bind to starch Aren’t affected during the reaction

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142
Q

What can an organic cofactor be known as?

A

Coenzymes, usually are sources from vitamins

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143
Q

What do coenzymes do during a reaction?

A

They participate in the reaction, so are changed Often act as carries, moving chemical groups between different enzymes

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144
Q

What’s a cofactor known as if it’s tightly bound to an enzyme, and an example?

A

Prosthetic group, eg Zn(2+) in cabonic anhydrase (which catalyses the production of carbonic acid, from water and CO2)

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145
Q

Explain what a competitive inhibitor is and how it works?

A

They are molecules that have similar shape to that of substrate molecules They compete with the substrate molecules to bind to the active site, but no reaction takes place, so they block the place for the substrate to react

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146
Q

Explain what a non competitive inhibitor is and how it works?

A

Molecules that bind to the enzyme at the alosteric site Causes the active site to change the shape so the substrate molecules can no longer bind to it

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147
Q

What makes an inhibitor reversible or non reversible?

A

Reversible if they’re bonded via weaker bonds such as hydrogen bonds Irreversible if they are bonded via strong hydrogen bonds

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148
Q

Examples of enzyme inhibitors?

A

Some drugs, and metabolic poisions

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149
Q

How are metabolic pathways regulated by end-product inhibition?

A

Metabollic pathway is a series of connected metabolic reactions, so the product of the first reaction takes part in the second reaction, each reaction is catalysed by a different enzyme Many enzymes are inhibited by the product of the reaction they catalyse, this is known as product inhibition End product inhibition is when the final product of the metabolic pathway, inhibits an enzyme which acts earlier on in the pathway So when there’s too much of final product will inhibit an earlier enzyme more, preventing too much being made

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150
Q

Why are some enzymes sometimes synthesised as inactive precursor enzymes?

A

So they don’t damage the cells they are synthesised in

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151
Q

Functions of membranes at the surface of cells (plasma membranes)?

A

They are barriers between the cell and the environment They’re partially permeable and control what substances enter and leave the cell They allow recognition by other cells They allow cell communication

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152
Q

Functions of membranes within cells?

A

Compartmentalises organelles, acting as a barrier between the organelle and cytoplasm Can form vesicles to transport substances between different areas of the cell They control which substances enter, and leave the organelle Can be the site of a chemical reaction

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153
Q

What are cell membranes made up of?

A

Lipids (mainly phospholipids) Proteins Carbohydrates (usually attached to proteins or lipids)

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154
Q

Describe the basic structure of a cell membrane?

A

Phospholipid molecules form a continuous double layer (bilayer) Bilayer is fluid as phopholipids are continuously moving Cholesterol molecules are present in the bilayer Proteins scattered thoughout the bilayer (like tiles) Some proteins have carbohydrates attached = glycoproten Some lipids also have a polysaccharide chain attached = glycolipid

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155
Q

How do phopholipids form a barrier to dissolved substances?

A

They have a head and a tail, the head is hydrophillic (attracts water) and the tail is hydrophobic (repels water) They arrange themselves in a bilayer, heads on outside, tails on the inside The centre of the bilayer is hydrophobic, so the membrane doesn’t allow water-soluble substances through it, however does allow fat-soluble substances through

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156
Q

What cholesterol do to the membrane?

A

Fits between the phospholipids, and bind to the hydrophobic tails, causing them to pack more closely

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157
Q

What do proteins do in the membrane generally?

A

Control what leaves and enters, and act as receptors

158
Q

What glycolipids and glycoproteins do in the membrane generally?

A

Act as receptors for messenger molecules

159
Q

Explain the general process of cell signalling?

A

One cell releases a messenger molecule, (eg a hormone) This molecule travels to another cell The messenger molecule is detected by the cell as it binds to a receptor on it’s cell membrane, the receptors will be complementary to the molecule

160
Q

What is glucagon?

A

A hormone that’s released when there isn’t enough glucose in the blood, it binds to receptors on liver cells, causing the liver to breakdown stores of glycogen to glucose

161
Q

Describe a drug that binds to cell receptors?

A

Cell damage causes the release of histamine, which binds to receptors of other cells and causes inflamation. Antihistamine binds to there receptor cells and blocks histamine binding and causing inflamation

162
Q

How can membrane permeability be investigated?

A

Using beetroot cell that contain a coloured pigment that leaks out, the more permeable it is the more pigment will leak out. Leave in solution of water, then measure the solution produced with a calorimeter, so the higher the absorbance, the more permeable it is

163
Q

Affect of increasing temperature on the cell membrane?

A

Temperature bellow 0 degrees: Very little energy, so phospholipids packed together very tightly and membrane is rigid. But channel proteins and carrier proteins may deform, increasing the permeability. Ice crystals may form and pierce the membrane, making it highly permeable when it thaws Temperature between 0 and 45 degrees: The phospholipids can move around and aren’t as tightly packed, so the membrane is partially permeable, so as temperature increases they move around more and become more permeable Temperature above 45 degrees: The phospholipid bilayer starts to melt (break down) and the membrane becomes more permeable Water inside the cell expands putting pressure on the membrane Channel proteins and carrier proteins deform so they can’t control what enters or leaves the cell, making it even more permeable

164
Q

How do solvents affect the cell membrane?

A

Increases the permeability as the solvent dissolves the lipids in the cell membrane, so it loses structure

165
Q

What’s diffusion?

A

The net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration No ATP is required, it is a passive process

166
Q

What type of molecules can diffuse through the cell membrane?

A

Small, non polar molecules such as Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide, as can fit in between spaces between phospholipids Water also can because it’s small enough, even though it’s polar

167
Q

4 factors the rate of diffusion depends upon?

A

The concentration gradient, the higher it is the faster the rate of diffusion The thickness of the exchange surface, the thinner it is the faster the rate The surface area, the larger the surface area the faster the rate The temperature- higher the temp the faster it is as particles have more kinetic energy so move faster

168
Q

How can you investigate diffusion in model cells?

A

Make up some agar jelly, with phenolphthalein (pH indicator which is pink in alkaline conditions, and colourless in acidic conditions), and sodium hydroxide, so the jelly will be a shade of pink Put the agar cubes into dilute hydrochloric acid, and time how long it takes for the HCl to diffuse into the agar cube neutralising it and making it colourless Can use this to investigate surface area, concentration gradient, and temperature

169
Q

What’s facillitated diffusion?

A

When larger molecules, Ions and polar molecules don’t diffuse directly through the phospholipid bilayer, so they diffuse through carrier proteins or channel proteins Moves particles down a concentration gradient, and doesn’t require ATP

170
Q

How do carrier proteins move large molecules into or out of a cell?

A

A large molecule attaches to a carrier protein in the membrane The protein then changes shape This releases the molecule on the opposite side of the membrane

171
Q

What do carrier proteins do?

A

Form pores in the membrane for specific charged particles to diffuse through

172
Q

Describe the process of active transport?

A

A molecule attaches to a carrier protein, causing it to change shape and allow the molecule across, requires ATP and moves particles from low concentration to a high concentration

173
Q

Describe cells taking substances in by endocytosis?

A

Some substances to large to be taken into a cell by carrier proteins So the cell surrounds the substance with a section of it’s plasma membrane, the membrane then pinches off to form a vesicle inside cell containing the ingested substance = endocytosis Process uses ATP for energy

174
Q

Describe cells secreting substances by exocytosis?

A

Vesicles containing the substances pinch off from the sacs of the golgi apparatus and move towards the plasma membrane They then fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell Uses ATP as an energy source

175
Q

What is osmosis?

A

The diffusion of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane down a water potential gradient.

176
Q

What is water potential?

A

The likelihood of water molecules to diffuse out of or into a solution Pure water has the highest water potential of 0

177
Q

What happens to an animal cell if it’s in a solution where the water potential outside is higher, the same or lower?

A

Higher: Net movement of water into the cells causing them to burst The same: water molecules pass into and out of the cell in equal amounts, so the cell stays the same Lower: net movement is out of the cell, the cell shrinks

178
Q

What happens to an plant cell if it’s in a solution where the water potential outside is higher, the same or lower?

A

Higher: Net movement of water is into the cell. The vacuole swells, the vacuole and cytoplasm push against the cell wall, making the cell turgid The same: Water molecules move into and out of the cell, in equal amounts. The cell stays the same. Lower: Net movement of water is out of the cell, the cell becomes flaccid. The cytoplasm and the membrane pull away from the cell wall. This is called plasmolysis

179
Q

Experiment to investigate water potential?

A

Prepare different sucrose concentration solutions Weigh potato chips and one in each oconcentration for 20 minutes Measure the percentage mass change, and plot it against concentration of sucrose solution on the x axis The place where they have equal water potentials is where line crosses x axis (works with eggs that have their shells dissolved aswell

180
Q

Experiment to investigate water potential?

A

Prepare different sucrose concentration solutions Weigh potato chips and one in each oconcentration for 20 minutes Measure the percentage mass change, and plot it against concentration of sucrose solution on the x axis The place where they have equal water potentials is where line crosses x axis (works with eggs that have their shells dissolved aswell

181
Q

What happens to an plant cell if it’s in a solution where the water potential outside is higher, the same or lower?

A

Higher: Net movement of water is into the cell. The vacuole swells, the vacuole and cytoplasm push against the cell wall, making the cell turgid The same: Water molecules move into and out of the cell, in equal amounts. The cell stays the same. Lower: Net movement of water is out of the cell, the cell becomes flaccid. The cytoplasm and the membrane pull away from the cell wall. This is called plasmolysis

182
Q

What happens to an animal cell if it’s in a solution where the water potential outside is higher, the same or lower?

A

Higher: Net movement of water into the cells causing them to burst The same: water molecules pass into and out of the cell in equal amounts, so the cell stays the same Lower: net movement is out of the cell, the cell shrinks

183
Q

What is water potential?

A

The likelihood of water molecules to diffuse out of or into a solution Pure water has the highest water potential of 0

184
Q

What is osmosis?

A

The diffusion of water molecules across a partially permeable membrane down a water potential gradient.

185
Q

Describe cells secreting substances by exocytosis?

A

Vesicles containing the substances pinch off from the sacs of the golgi apparatus and move towards the plasma membrane They then fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell Uses ATP as an energy source

186
Q

Describe cells taking substances in by endocytosis?

A

Some substances to large to be taken into a cell by carrier proteins So the cell surrounds the substance with a section of it’s plasma membrane, the membrane then pinches off to form a vesicle inside cell containing the ingested substance = endocytosis Process uses ATP for energy

187
Q

Describe the process of active transport?

A

A molecule attaches to a carrier protein, causing it to change shape and allow the molecule across, requires ATP and moves particles from low concentration to a high concentration

188
Q

What do carrier proteins do?

A

Form pores in the membrane for specific charged particles to diffuse through

189
Q

How do carrier proteins move large molecules into or out of a cell?

A

A large molecule attaches to a carrier protein in the membrane The protein then changes shape This releases the molecule on the opposite side of the membrane

190
Q

What’s facillitated diffusion?

A

When larger molecules, Ions and polar molecules don’t diffuse directly through the phospholipid bilayer, so they diffuse through carrier proteins or channel proteins Moves particles down a concentration gradient, and doesn’t require ATP

191
Q

How can you investigate diffusion in model cells?

A

Make up some agar jelly, with phenolphthalein (pH indicator which is pink in alkaline conditions, and colourless in acidic conditions), and sodium hydroxide, so the jelly will be a shade of pink Put the agar cubes into dilute hydrochloric acid, and time how long it takes for the HCl to diffuse into the agar cube neutralising it and making it colourless Can use this to investigate surface area, concentration gradient, and temperature

192
Q

4 factors the rate of diffusion depends upon?

A

The concentration gradient, the higher it is the faster the rate of diffusion The thickness of the exchange surface, the thinner it is the faster the rate The surface area, the larger the surface area the faster the rate The temperature- higher the temp the faster it is as particles have more kinetic energy so move faster

193
Q

What type of molecules can diffuse through the cell membrane?

A

Small, non polar molecules such as Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide, as can fit in between spaces between phospholipids Water also can because it’s small enough, even though it’s polar

194
Q

What’s diffusion?

A

The net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration No ATP is required, it is a passive process

195
Q

How do solvents affect the cell membrane?

A

Increases the permeability as the solvent dissolves the lipids in the cell membrane, so it loses structure

196
Q

Affect of increasing temperature on the cell membrane?

A

Temperature bellow 0 degrees: Very little energy, so phospholipids packed together very tightly and membrane is rigid. But channel proteins and carrier proteins may deform, increasing the permeability. Ice crystals may form and pierce the membrane, making it highly permeable when it thaws Temperature between 0 and 45 degrees: The phospholipids can move around and aren’t as tightly packed, so the membrane is partially permeable, so as temperature increases they move around more and become more permeable Temperature above 45 degrees: The phospholipid bilayer starts to melt (break down) and the membrane becomes more permeable Water inside the cell expands putting pressure on the membrane Channel proteins and carrier proteins deform so they can’t control what enters or leaves the cell, making it even more permeable

197
Q

How can membrane permeability be investigated?

A

Using beetroot cell that contain a coloured pigment that leaks out, the more permeable it is the more pigment will leak out. Leave in solution of water, then measure the solution produced with a calorimeter, so the higher the absorbance, the more permeable it is

198
Q

Describe a drug that binds to cell receptors?

A

Cell damage causes the release of histamine, which binds to receptors of other cells and causes inflamation. Antihistamine binds to there receptor cells and blocks histamine binding and causing inflamation

199
Q

What is glucagon?

A

A hormone that’s released when there isn’t enough glucose in the blood, it binds to receptors on liver cells, causing the liver to breakdown stores of glycogen to glucose

200
Q

Explain the general process of cell signalling?

A

One cell releases a messenger molecule, (eg a hormone) This molecule travels to another cell The messenger molecule is detected by the cell as it binds to a receptor on it’s cell membrane, the receptors will be complementary to the molecule

201
Q

What glycolipids and glycoproteins do in the membrane generally?

A

Act as receptors for messenger molecules

202
Q

What do proteins do in the membrane generally?

A

Control what leaves and enters, and act as receptors

203
Q

What cholesterol do to the membrane?

A

Fits between the phospholipids, and bind to the hydrophobic tails, causing them to pack more closely

204
Q

How do phopholipids form a barrier to dissolved substances?

A

They have a head and a tail, the head is hydrophillic (attracts water) and the tail is hydrophobic (repels water) They arrange themselves in a bilayer, heads on outside, tails on the inside The centre of the bilayer is hydrophobic, so the membrane doesn’t allow water-soluble substances through it, however does allow fat-soluble substances through

205
Q

Describe the basic structure of a cell membrane?

A

Phospholipid molecules form a continuous double layer (bilayer) Bilayer is fluid as phopholipids are continuously moving Cholesterol molecules are present in the bilayer Proteins scattered thoughout the bilayer (like tiles) Some proteins have carbohydrates attached = glycoproten Some lipids also have a polysaccharide chain attached = glycolipid

206
Q

What are cell membranes made up of?

A

Lipids (mainly phospholipids) Proteins Carbohydrates (usually attached to proteins or lipids)

207
Q

Functions of membranes within cells?

A

Compartmentalises organelles, acting as a barrier between the organelle and cytoplasm Can form vesicles to transport substances between different areas of the cell They control which substances enter, and leave the organelle Can be the site of a chemical reaction

208
Q

Functions of membranes at the surface of cells (plasma membranes)?

A

They are barriers between the cell and the environment They’re partially permeable and control what substances enter and leave the cell They allow recognition by other cells They allow cell communication

209
Q

Describe the cell cycle briefly?

A

Order: Cell division: M phase- cell division and cytokenesis Interphase: cell growth and reproduction G1 G1 checkpoint S G2 checkpoint

210
Q

What occurs at G1 checkpoint and G2 checkpoint?

A

G1 checkpoint: Cell checks that the chemicals required for replication are present, and for any DNA damage before entering the s Phase G2 checkpoint: The cell checks if all the DNA has been replicated without damage, to see if it can enter the M phase

211
Q

The 6 steps in cell division?

A

Interphase Prophase (Mitosis) Metaphase (Mitosis) Anaphase (Mitosis) Telophase (Mitosis) Cytokenesis

212
Q

What occurs during interphase?

A

The cell carries out normal functions, but also prepares to divide Cell’s DNA is replicated, to double it’s genetic content, the organelles are also replicated so it has spare ones ATP content is increased (provides energy for cell division)

213
Q

What’s a chromosome, a chromatid, sister chromatids, homologous pairs and a centromere?

A

A chromosome is half the X before replication in interphase, and is the whole X shape after replication A chromatid is the part of the X which would be there before replication SIster chromatids, and the bottom or top 2 parts of the X paired up Homologous pairs are when there’s 1 chromosome from the mum and 1 from the dad, they have the same genes in the same order, but will have different allels Centromere joins the 2 strands of the chromosome in the middle

214
Q

Describe what occurs in the first step of mitosis, prophase?

A

Chromosomes condense Centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cell, forming a network of protein fibres across it called spindle Nuclear envelope breaks down and chromosomes lie free in the cytoplasm

215
Q

What occurs in the second step of mitosis, metaphase?

A

The chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell (laying sideways), and become attached to the spindle by their centromers Metaphase checkpoint, checks to see that all chromosomes are attached to the spindle before it can continue

216
Q

What occurs in anaphase, the 3rd of mitosis?

A

Centromers divide Separating each pair of sister chromatids, the spindles contract pulling the chromatids to the opposite ends of the cell

217
Q

What occurs in telophase, the 4th step of mitosis?

A

The chromatids reach the opposite poles of the spindle, and uncoil becoming long and thin again, so they’re now called chromosomes again A nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes so there are now 2 nuclei Cytokenesis occurs next 9 (not part of mitosis)

218
Q

Describe cytokenesis?

A

The cytoplasm divides, a cleavage furrow forms to divide the cell membrane Produces 2 daughter cells which are genetically identical to each other and the original cell

219
Q

Uses of mitosis?

A

Need for growth of multicellular organisms Repairing damaged tissue Method of asexual reproduction

220
Q

What occurs in sexual reproduction?

A

2 gametes (an egg and a sperm), join together at fertilisation to form a zygote

221
Q

Where does meiosis occur?

A

Occurs in sexual reproductive organs to produce gametes

222
Q

What’s a gamete and what type of cell are they?

A

Produced in sexual reproductive organs, and contain half the amount of chromosomes of a normal cell, so they are haploid cells, and are all gentically different to each other as contain different combinations of chromosomes

223
Q

How many chromosomes do human cells have?

A

46, so 23 homologous pairs

224
Q

What are the steps in meiosis?

A

Interphase (DNA replicated) Prophase 1 Metaphase 1 Anaphase 1 Telophase 1 Cytokenesis Prophase 2 Metaphase 2 Anaphase 2 Telophase 2 Cytokenesis

225
Q

What occurs in prophase 1, the first step of meiosis?

A

(DNA has already been replicated in interphase) Chromosomes condense, and arrange themselves into homologous pairs Crossing over occurs Centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cells, forming the spindle fibres Nuclear envelope breaks down

226
Q

What occurs in metaphase 1, the second step of meiosis?

A

The homologous pairs line up across the centre of the cell, and attach to the spindle fibres by their centromers

227
Q

What happens in anaphase 1, the third step of meiosis?

A

The spindles contract, separating the homologous pairs, one chromosome goes to each end of the cell

228
Q

What occurs in telophase 1, the 4th step of meiosis?

A

Nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes, and then cytokinesis occurs and 2 haploid daughter cells are produced (still double stranded)

229
Q

What happens in meiosis 2?

A

All the same steps as mitosis Produces 4 genetically different haploid daughter cells (single stranded chromosomes) = gametes

230
Q

Describe chromatids crossing over in Prophase 1?

A

Homologous pairs have come together and pair up, the chromatids twist around each other, and bits of chromatids swap over The chromosomes still contain the same genes, but have different alleles

231
Q

2 ways meiosis creates cells which are genetically different?

A

Crossing over if the chromatids Independent assortment of chromosomes

232
Q

Describe the independent assortment of chromosomes?

A

Each homologous pair of chromosomes in your cells is made up of one chromosome from your mum (maternal), and one from your dad (paternal) When the homologous pairs line up in metaphase 1, and are separated in anaphase 1, it’s random which chromosome from each pair ends up in which daughter cell So all 4 daughter cells have different combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes

233
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Unspecialised cells, that can develop into different types of cells

234
Q

Where are stem cells most commonly found?

A

In human embryos

235
Q

What’s the process of a stem cell dividing to become a new cell which then becomes specialised?

A

Differentiation

236
Q

What do adult stem cells in the bone marrow differentiate into?

A

They divide and differentiate to replace worn out erythrocytes (red blood cells) and Nuetrophils (white blood cells)

237
Q

In plants what do the stem cells in the meristems differentiate into?

A

Xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes

238
Q

Why could stem cells be used to cure nuerone disorders such as Alzheimers and parkinsons?

A

In Alzheimers nerve cells in the brain die in increasing numbers, resulting in memory loss. Stem cells could be used to regrow healthy nerve cells In parkinsons loss of nerve cell which produces dopamine for movement, can regrow these with nerve cells

239
Q

How are nuetrophils (type of white blood cell) adapted to perform their function?

A

Their flexible shape allows, them to ingest foreign particles or pathogens. The lysosomes in their cytoplasm contain digestive enzymes to break down the engulfed particles

240
Q

How are erythrocytes adapted to perform their function?

A

The bioconcave disc shape provides a large surface area for gas exchange They have no nucleus, so there’s more for haemoglobin

241
Q

How are epithelial cells (cover the surfaces of organs) adapted to perform their function?

A

CIliated epithial cells (in the air ways) have cilia that beat to move particles away Squamous epithelial cells (in the lungs) are very thin to allow efficent diffusion of gases

242
Q

How are sperm cells adapted to perform their function?

A

Have a flagellum so they can swim to the egg Have lots of mitochondrion to provide energy to swim The acrosome (head) contains digestive enzymes, that enable the sperm to penetrate the surface of the egg

243
Q

How are palisade mesophyll cells in leaves adapted to perform their function?

A

They do most of the photosynthesis, so they contain many chloroplasts, so can absorb a lot of sunlight The walls are thin, so CO2 can easily into the cell

244
Q

How are root hair cells adapted to their perform their function?

A

Absorb mineral ions from the soil, so have a large surface area for absorption, and a thin permeable cell wall for entry of water and ions The cytoplasm contains extra mitochondria to provide the energy required for active transport

245
Q

How are guard cells adapted to perform their function?

A

Found in pairs with a gap between them to form a stoma, which is a tiny pore in the surface of the leaf used for gas exchange In the light, guard cells take up water and become turgid, forcing them open, and allowing gas exchange for photosynthesis

246
Q

What’s a tissue?

A

A group of cells that are specialised to work together to perform a particular function

247
Q

What does the tissue squamous epithelium do?

A

A single layer of flat cells lining a surface, found in the alveoli of the lungs

248
Q

What does the tissue ciliated epithelium do?

A

Layer of cells covered in cilia, it’s found on the surfaces where things need to be moved, eg in the trachea to move mucus

249
Q

What do muscle tissues do and what does it consist of?

A

Made up of muscle fibres, there are 3 types of muscle tissue, smooth (found in lining of stomach wall), cardiac (found in heart), and skeletal which is used to move

250
Q

What does the tissue cartilage do?

A

Type of connective tissue found in the joints Formed when cells called chondrolasts secrete an extracellular matrix in which they become trapped in

251
Q

What does xylem tissue do?

A

Transports water around the plant Supports the plant Contains dead hollow xylem vessel cells and living parenchyma cells

252
Q

What’s an organ?

A

Group of different tissues that work together to perform a particular function Eg. the lungs and leaves

253
Q

What’s an organ system?

A

Organs working together to perform a particular function, eg. respiratory system or circulatory system

254
Q

What does phloem tissue do?

A

Transports sugars around the plant, arranged in tubes made up of sieve tube elements and companion cells

255
Q

What occurs at G1 checkpoint and G2 checkpoint?

A

G1 checkpoint: Cell checks that the chemicals required for replication are present, and for any DNA damage before entering the s Phase G2 checkpoint: The cell checks if all the DNA has been replicated without damage, to see if it can enter the M phase

256
Q

The 6 steps in cell division?

A

Interphase Prophase (Mitosis) Metaphase (Mitosis) Anaphase (Mitosis) Telophase (Mitosis) Cytokenesis

257
Q

What occurs during interphase?

A

The cell carries out normal functions, but also prepares to divide Cell’s DNA is replicated, to double it’s genetic content, the organelles are also replicated so it has spare ones ATP content is increased (provides energy for cell division)

258
Q

What’s a chromosome, a chromatid, sister chromatids, homologous pairs and a centromere?

A

A chromosome is half the X before replication in interphase, and is the whole X shape after replication A chromatid is the part of the X which would be there before replication SIster chromatids, and the bottom or top 2 parts of the X paired up Homologous pairs are when there’s 1 chromosome from the mum and 1 from the dad, they have the same genes in the same order, but will have different allels Centromere joins the 2 strands of the chromosome in the middle

259
Q

Describe what occurs in the first step of mitosis, prophase?

A

Chromosomes condense Centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cell, forming a network of protein fibres across it called spindle Nuclear envelope breaks down and chromosomes lie free in the cytoplasm

260
Q

What occurs in the second step of mitosis, metaphase?

A

The chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell (laying sideways), and become attached to the spindle by their centromers Metaphase checkpoint, checks to see that all chromosomes are attached to the spindle before it can continue

261
Q

What occurs in anaphase, the 3rd of mitosis?

A

Centromers divide Separating each pair of sister chromatids, the spindles contract pulling the chromatids to the opposite ends of the cell

262
Q

What occurs in telophase, the 4th step of mitosis?

A

The chromatids reach the opposite poles of the spindle, and uncoil becoming long and thin again, so they’re now called chromosomes again A nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes so there are now 2 nuclei Cytokenesis occurs next 9 (not part of mitosis)

263
Q

Describe cytokenesis?

A

The cytoplasm divides, a cleavage furrow forms to divide the cell membrane Produces 2 daughter cells which are genetically identical to each other and the original cell

264
Q

Uses of mitosis?

A

Need for growth of multicellular organisms Repairing damaged tissue Method of asexual reproduction

265
Q

What occurs in sexual reproduction?

A

2 gametes (an egg and a sperm), join together at fertilisation to form a zygote

266
Q

Where does meiosis occur?

A

Occurs in sexual reproductive organs to produce gametes

267
Q

What’s a gamete and what type of cell are they?

A

Produced in sexual reproductive organs, and contain half the amount of chromosomes of a normal cell, so they are haploid cells, and are all gentically different to each other as contain different combinations of chromosomes

268
Q

How many chromosomes do human cells have?

A

46, so 23 homologous pairs

269
Q

What are the steps in meiosis?

A

Interphase (DNA replicated) Prophase 1 Metaphase 1 Anaphase 1 Telophase 1 Cytokenesis Prophase 2 Metaphase 2 Anaphase 2 Telophase 2 Cytokenesis

270
Q

What occurs in prophase 1, the first step of meiosis?

A

(DNA has already been replicated in interphase) Chromosomes condense, and arrange themselves into homologous pairs Crossing over occurs Centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cells, forming the spindle fibres Nuclear envelope breaks down

271
Q

What occurs in metaphase 1, the second step of meiosis?

A

The homologous pairs line up across the centre of the cell, and attach to the spindle fibres by their centromers

272
Q

What happens in anaphase 1, the third step of meiosis?

A

The spindles contract, separating the homologous pairs, one chromosome goes to each end of the cell

273
Q

What occurs in telophase 1, the 4th step of meiosis?

A

Nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes, and then cytokinesis occurs and 2 haploid daughter cells are produced (still double stranded)

274
Q

What happens in meiosis 2?

A

All the same steps as mitosis Produces 4 genetically different haploid daughter cells (single stranded chromosomes) = gametes

275
Q

Describe chromatids crossing over in Prophase 1?

A

Homologous pairs have come together and pair up, the chromatids twist around each other, and bits of chromatids swap over The chromosomes still contain the same genes, but have different alleles

276
Q

2 ways meiosis creates cells which are genetically different?

A

Crossing over if the chromatids Independent assortment of chromosomes

277
Q

Describe the independent assortment of chromosomes?

A

Each homologous pair of chromosomes in your cells is made up of one chromosome from your mum (maternal), and one from your dad (paternal) When the homologous pairs line up in metaphase 1, and are separated in anaphase 1, it’s random which chromosome from each pair ends up in which daughter cell So all 4 daughter cells have different combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes

278
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Unspecialised cells, that can develop into different types of cells

279
Q

Where are stem cells most commonly found?

A

In human embryos

280
Q

What’s the process of a stem cell dividing to become a new cell which then becomes specialised?

A

Differentiation

281
Q

What do adult stem cells in the bone marrow differentiate into?

A

They divide and differentiate to replace worn out erythrocytes (red blood cells) and Nuetrophils (white blood cells)

282
Q

In plants what do the stem cells in the meristems differentiate into?

A

Xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes

283
Q

Why could stem cells be used to cure nuerone disorders such as Alzheimers and parkinsons?

A

In Alzheimers nerve cells in the brain die in increasing numbers, resulting in memory loss. Stem cells could be used to regrow healthy nerve cells In parkinsons loss of nerve cell which produces dopamine for movement, can regrow these with nerve cells

284
Q

How are nuetrophils (type of white blood cell) adapted to perform their function?

A

Their flexible shape allows, them to ingest foreign particles or pathogens. The lysosomes in their cytoplasm contain digestive enzymes to break down the engulfed particles

285
Q

How are erythrocytes adapted to perform their function?

A

The bioconcave disc shape provides a large surface area for gas exchange They have no nucleus, so there’s more for haemoglobin

286
Q

How are epithelial cells (cover the surfaces of organs) adapted to perform their function?

A

CIliated epithial cells (in the air ways) have cilia that beat to move particles away Squamous epithelial cells (in the lungs) are very thin to allow efficent diffusion of gases

287
Q

How are sperm cells adapted to perform their function?

A

Have a flagellum so they can swim to the egg Have lots of mitochondrion to provide energy to swim The acrosome (head) contains digestive enzymes, that enable the sperm to penetrate the surface of the egg

288
Q

How are palisade mesophyll cells in leaves adapted to perform their function?

A

They do most of the photosynthesis, so they contain many chloroplasts, so can absorb a lot of sunlight The walls are thin, so CO2 can easily into the cell

289
Q

How are root hair cells adapted to their perform their function?

A

Absorb mineral ions from the soil, so have a large surface area for absorption, and a thin permeable cell wall for entry of water and ions The cytoplasm contains extra mitochondria to provide the energy required for active transport

290
Q

How are guard cells adapted to perform their function?

A

Found in pairs with a gap between them to form a stoma, which is a tiny pore in the surface of the leaf used for gas exchange In the light, guard cells take up water and become turgid, forcing them open, and allowing gas exchange for photosynthesis

291
Q

What’s a tissue?

A

A group of cells that are specialised to work together to perform a particular function

292
Q

What does the tissue squamous epithelium do?

A

A single layer of flat cells lining a surface, found in the alveoli of the lungs

293
Q

What does the tissue ciliated epithelium do?

A

Layer of cells covered in cilia, it’s found on the surfaces where things need to be moved, eg in the trachea to move mucus

294
Q

What does phloem tissue do?

A

Transports sugars around the plant, arranged in tubes made up of sieve tube elements and companion cells

295
Q

What’s an organ system?

A

Organs working together to perform a particular function, eg. respiratory system or circulatory system

296
Q

What’s an organ?

A

Group of different tissues that work together to perform a particular function Eg. the lungs and leaves

297
Q

What does xylem tissue do?

A

Transports water around the plant Supports the plant Contains dead hollow xylem vessel cells and living parenchyma cells

298
Q

What does the tissue cartilage do?

A

Type of connective tissue found in the joints Formed when cells called chondrolasts secrete an extracellular matrix in which they become trapped in

299
Q

What do muscle tissues do and what does it consist of?

A

Made up of muscle fibres, there are 3 types of muscle tissue, smooth (found in lining of stomach wall), cardiac (found in heart), and skeletal which is used to move

300
Q

Describe the cell cycle briefly?

A

Order: Cell division: M phase- cell division and cytokenesis Interphase: cell growth and reproduction G1 G1 checkpoint S G2 checkpoint

301
Q

What occurs at G1 checkpoint and G2 checkpoint?

A

G1 checkpoint: Cell checks that the chemicals required for replication are present, and for any DNA damage before entering the s Phase G2 checkpoint: The cell checks if all the DNA has been replicated without damage, to see if it can enter the M phase

302
Q

The 6 steps in cell division?

A

Interphase Prophase (Mitosis) Metaphase (Mitosis) Anaphase (Mitosis) Telophase (Mitosis) Cytokenesis

303
Q

What occurs during interphase?

A

The cell carries out normal functions, but also prepares to divide Cell’s DNA is replicated, to double it’s genetic content, the organelles are also replicated so it has spare ones ATP content is increased (provides energy for cell division)

304
Q

What’s a chromosome, a chromatid, sister chromatids, homologous pairs and a centromere?

A

A chromosome is half the X before replication in interphase, and is the whole X shape after replication A chromatid is the part of the X which would be there before replication SIster chromatids, and the bottom or top 2 parts of the X paired up Homologous pairs are when there’s 1 chromosome from the mum and 1 from the dad, they have the same genes in the same order, but will have different allels Centromere joins the 2 strands of the chromosome in the middle

305
Q

Describe what occurs in the first step of mitosis, prophase?

A

Chromosomes condense Centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cell, forming a network of protein fibres across it called spindle Nuclear envelope breaks down and chromosomes lie free in the cytoplasm

306
Q

What occurs in the second step of mitosis, metaphase?

A

The chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell (laying sideways), and become attached to the spindle by their centromers Metaphase checkpoint, checks to see that all chromosomes are attached to the spindle before it can continue

307
Q

What occurs in anaphase, the 3rd of mitosis?

A

Centromers divide Separating each pair of sister chromatids, the spindles contract pulling the chromatids to the opposite ends of the cell

308
Q

What occurs in telophase, the 4th step of mitosis?

A

The chromatids reach the opposite poles of the spindle, and uncoil becoming long and thin again, so they’re now called chromosomes again A nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes so there are now 2 nuclei Cytokenesis occurs next 9 (not part of mitosis)

309
Q

What does phloem tissue do?

A

Transports sugars around the plant, arranged in tubes made up of sieve tube elements and companion cells

310
Q

What’s an organ system?

A

Organs working together to perform a particular function, eg. respiratory system or circulatory system

311
Q

What’s an organ?

A

Group of different tissues that work together to perform a particular function Eg. the lungs and leaves

312
Q

What does xylem tissue do?

A

Transports water around the plant Supports the plant Contains dead hollow xylem vessel cells and living parenchyma cells

313
Q

What does the tissue cartilage do?

A

Type of connective tissue found in the joints Formed when cells called chondrolasts secrete an extracellular matrix in which they become trapped in

314
Q

What do muscle tissues do and what does it consist of?

A

Made up of muscle fibres, there are 3 types of muscle tissue, smooth (found in lining of stomach wall), cardiac (found in heart), and skeletal which is used to move

315
Q

What does the tissue ciliated epithelium do?

A

Layer of cells covered in cilia, it’s found on the surfaces where things need to be moved, eg in the trachea to move mucus

316
Q

What does the tissue squamous epithelium do?

A

A single layer of flat cells lining a surface, found in the alveoli of the lungs

317
Q

What’s a tissue?

A

A group of cells that are specialised to work together to perform a particular function

318
Q

How are guard cells adapted to perform their function?

A

Found in pairs with a gap between them to form a stoma, which is a tiny pore in the surface of the leaf used for gas exchange In the light, guard cells take up water and become turgid, forcing them open, and allowing gas exchange for photosynthesis

319
Q

How are root hair cells adapted to their perform their function?

A

Absorb mineral ions from the soil, so have a large surface area for absorption, and a thin permeable cell wall for entry of water and ions The cytoplasm contains extra mitochondria to provide the energy required for active transport

320
Q

How are palisade mesophyll cells in leaves adapted to perform their function?

A

They do most of the photosynthesis, so they contain many chloroplasts, so can absorb a lot of sunlight The walls are thin, so CO2 can easily into the cell

321
Q

How are sperm cells adapted to perform their function?

A

Have a flagellum so they can swim to the egg Have lots of mitochondrion to provide energy to swim The acrosome (head) contains digestive enzymes, that enable the sperm to penetrate the surface of the egg

322
Q

How are epithelial cells (cover the surfaces of organs) adapted to perform their function?

A

CIliated epithial cells (in the air ways) have cilia that beat to move particles away Squamous epithelial cells (in the lungs) are very thin to allow efficent diffusion of gases

323
Q

How are erythrocytes adapted to perform their function?

A

The bioconcave disc shape provides a large surface area for gas exchange They have no nucleus, so there’s more for haemoglobin

324
Q

How are nuetrophils (type of white blood cell) adapted to perform their function?

A

Their flexible shape allows, them to ingest foreign particles or pathogens. The lysosomes in their cytoplasm contain digestive enzymes to break down the engulfed particles

325
Q

Why could stem cells be used to cure nuerone disorders such as Alzheimers and parkinsons?

A

In Alzheimers nerve cells in the brain die in increasing numbers, resulting in memory loss. Stem cells could be used to regrow healthy nerve cells In parkinsons loss of nerve cell which produces dopamine for movement, can regrow these with nerve cells

326
Q

In plants what do the stem cells in the meristems differentiate into?

A

Xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes

327
Q

What do adult stem cells in the bone marrow differentiate into?

A

They divide and differentiate to replace worn out erythrocytes (red blood cells) and Nuetrophils (white blood cells)

328
Q

What’s the process of a stem cell dividing to become a new cell which then becomes specialised?

A

Differentiation

329
Q

Describe cytokenesis?

A

The cytoplasm divides, a cleavage furrow forms to divide the cell membrane Produces 2 daughter cells which are genetically identical to each other and the original cell

330
Q

Uses of mitosis?

A

Need for growth of multicellular organisms Repairing damaged tissue Method of asexual reproduction

331
Q

What occurs in sexual reproduction?

A

2 gametes (an egg and a sperm), join together at fertilisation to form a zygote

332
Q

Where does meiosis occur?

A

Occurs in sexual reproductive organs to produce gametes

333
Q

What’s a gamete and what type of cell are they?

A

Produced in sexual reproductive organs, and contain half the amount of chromosomes of a normal cell, so they are haploid cells, and are all gentically different to each other as contain different combinations of chromosomes

334
Q

How many chromosomes do human cells have?

A

46, so 23 homologous pairs

335
Q

What does phloem tissue do?

A

Transports sugars around the plant, arranged in tubes made up of sieve tube elements and companion cells

336
Q

What’s an organ system?

A

Organs working together to perform a particular function, eg. respiratory system or circulatory system

337
Q

What’s an organ?

A

Group of different tissues that work together to perform a particular function Eg. the lungs and leaves

338
Q

What does xylem tissue do?

A

Transports water around the plant Supports the plant Contains dead hollow xylem vessel cells and living parenchyma cells

339
Q

What does the tissue cartilage do?

A

Type of connective tissue found in the joints Formed when cells called chondrolasts secrete an extracellular matrix in which they become trapped in

340
Q

What do muscle tissues do and what does it consist of?

A

Made up of muscle fibres, there are 3 types of muscle tissue, smooth (found in lining of stomach wall), cardiac (found in heart), and skeletal which is used to move

341
Q

What does the tissue ciliated epithelium do?

A

Layer of cells covered in cilia, it’s found on the surfaces where things need to be moved, eg in the trachea to move mucus

342
Q

What does the tissue squamous epithelium do?

A

A single layer of flat cells lining a surface, found in the alveoli of the lungs

343
Q

What’s a tissue?

A

A group of cells that are specialised to work together to perform a particular function

344
Q

How are guard cells adapted to perform their function?

A

Found in pairs with a gap between them to form a stoma, which is a tiny pore in the surface of the leaf used for gas exchange In the light, guard cells take up water and become turgid, forcing them open, and allowing gas exchange for photosynthesis

345
Q

How are root hair cells adapted to their perform their function?

A

Absorb mineral ions from the soil, so have a large surface area for absorption, and a thin permeable cell wall for entry of water and ions The cytoplasm contains extra mitochondria to provide the energy required for active transport

346
Q

How are palisade mesophyll cells in leaves adapted to perform their function?

A

They do most of the photosynthesis, so they contain many chloroplasts, so can absorb a lot of sunlight The walls are thin, so CO2 can easily into the cell

347
Q

How are sperm cells adapted to perform their function?

A

Have a flagellum so they can swim to the egg Have lots of mitochondrion to provide energy to swim The acrosome (head) contains digestive enzymes, that enable the sperm to penetrate the surface of the egg

348
Q

How are epithelial cells (cover the surfaces of organs) adapted to perform their function?

A

CIliated epithial cells (in the air ways) have cilia that beat to move particles away Squamous epithelial cells (in the lungs) are very thin to allow efficent diffusion of gases

349
Q

How are erythrocytes adapted to perform their function?

A

The bioconcave disc shape provides a large surface area for gas exchange They have no nucleus, so there’s more for haemoglobin

350
Q

How are nuetrophils (type of white blood cell) adapted to perform their function?

A

Their flexible shape allows, them to ingest foreign particles or pathogens. The lysosomes in their cytoplasm contain digestive enzymes to break down the engulfed particles

351
Q

Why could stem cells be used to cure nuerone disorders such as Alzheimers and parkinsons?

A

In Alzheimers nerve cells in the brain die in increasing numbers, resulting in memory loss. Stem cells could be used to regrow healthy nerve cells In parkinsons loss of nerve cell which produces dopamine for movement, can regrow these with nerve cells

352
Q

In plants what do the stem cells in the meristems differentiate into?

A

Xylem vessels and phloem sieve tubes

353
Q

What do adult stem cells in the bone marrow differentiate into?

A

They divide and differentiate to replace worn out erythrocytes (red blood cells) and Nuetrophils (white blood cells)

354
Q

What’s the process of a stem cell dividing to become a new cell which then becomes specialised?

A

Differentiation

355
Q

Where are stem cells most commonly found?

A

In human embryos

356
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Unspecialised cells, that can develop into different types of cells

357
Q

Describe the independent assortment of chromosomes?

A

Each homologous pair of chromosomes in your cells is made up of one chromosome from your mum (maternal), and one from your dad (paternal) When the homologous pairs line up in metaphase 1, and are separated in anaphase 1, it’s random which chromosome from each pair ends up in which daughter cell So all 4 daughter cells have different combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes

358
Q

2 ways meiosis creates cells which are genetically different?

A

Crossing over if the chromatids Independent assortment of chromosomes

359
Q

Describe chromatids crossing over in Prophase 1?

A

Homologous pairs have come together and pair up, the chromatids twist around each other, and bits of chromatids swap over The chromosomes still contain the same genes, but have different alleles

360
Q

What happens in meiosis 2?

A

All the same steps as mitosis Produces 4 genetically different haploid daughter cells (single stranded chromosomes) = gametes

361
Q

What occurs in telophase 1, the 4th step of meiosis?

A

Nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes, and then cytokinesis occurs and 2 haploid daughter cells are produced (still double stranded)

362
Q

What happens in anaphase 1, the third step of meiosis?

A

The spindles contract, separating the homologous pairs, one chromosome goes to each end of the cell

363
Q

What occurs in metaphase 1, the second step of meiosis?

A

The homologous pairs line up across the centre of the cell, and attach to the spindle fibres by their centromers

364
Q

What occurs in prophase 1, the first step of meiosis?

A

(DNA has already been replicated in interphase) Chromosomes condense, and arrange themselves into homologous pairs Crossing over occurs Centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cells, forming the spindle fibres Nuclear envelope breaks down

365
Q

What are the steps in meiosis?

A

Interphase (DNA replicated) Prophase 1 Metaphase 1 Anaphase 1 Telophase 1 Cytokenesis Prophase 2 Metaphase 2 Anaphase 2 Telophase 2 Cytokenesis

366
Q

Describe the cell cycle briefly?

A

Order: Cell division: M phase- cell division and cytokenesis Interphase: cell growth and reproduction G1 G1 checkpoint S G2 checkpoint

367
Q

Where are stem cells most commonly found?

A

In human embryos

368
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Unspecialised cells, that can develop into different types of cells

369
Q

Describe the independent assortment of chromosomes?

A

Each homologous pair of chromosomes in your cells is made up of one chromosome from your mum (maternal), and one from your dad (paternal) When the homologous pairs line up in metaphase 1, and are separated in anaphase 1, it’s random which chromosome from each pair ends up in which daughter cell So all 4 daughter cells have different combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes

370
Q

2 ways meiosis creates cells which are genetically different?

A

Crossing over if the chromatids Independent assortment of chromosomes

371
Q

Describe chromatids crossing over in Prophase 1?

A

Homologous pairs have come together and pair up, the chromatids twist around each other, and bits of chromatids swap over The chromosomes still contain the same genes, but have different alleles

372
Q

What happens in meiosis 2?

A

All the same steps as mitosis Produces 4 genetically different haploid daughter cells (single stranded chromosomes) = gametes

373
Q

What occurs in telophase 1, the 4th step of meiosis?

A

Nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes, and then cytokinesis occurs and 2 haploid daughter cells are produced (still double stranded)

374
Q

What happens in anaphase 1, the third step of meiosis?

A

The spindles contract, separating the homologous pairs, one chromosome goes to each end of the cell

375
Q

What occurs in metaphase 1, the second step of meiosis?

A

The homologous pairs line up across the centre of the cell, and attach to the spindle fibres by their centromers

376
Q

What occurs in prophase 1, the first step of meiosis?

A

(DNA has already been replicated in interphase) Chromosomes condense, and arrange themselves into homologous pairs Crossing over occurs Centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cells, forming the spindle fibres Nuclear envelope breaks down

377
Q

What are the steps in meiosis?

A

Interphase (DNA replicated) Prophase 1 Metaphase 1 Anaphase 1 Telophase 1 Cytokenesis Prophase 2 Metaphase 2 Anaphase 2 Telophase 2 Cytokenesis

378
Q

How many chromosomes do human cells have?

A

46, so 23 homologous pairs

379
Q

What’s a gamete and what type of cell are they?

A

Produced in sexual reproductive organs, and contain half the amount of chromosomes of a normal cell, so they are haploid cells, and are all gentically different to each other as contain different combinations of chromosomes

380
Q

Where does meiosis occur?

A

Occurs in sexual reproductive organs to produce gametes

381
Q

What occurs in sexual reproduction?

A

2 gametes (an egg and a sperm), join together at fertilisation to form a zygote

382
Q

Uses of mitosis?

A

Need for growth of multicellular organisms Repairing damaged tissue Method of asexual reproduction

383
Q

Describe cytokenesis?

A

The cytoplasm divides, a cleavage furrow forms to divide the cell membrane Produces 2 daughter cells which are genetically identical to each other and the original cell

384
Q

What occurs in telophase, the 4th step of mitosis?

A

The chromatids reach the opposite poles of the spindle, and uncoil becoming long and thin again, so they’re now called chromosomes again A nuclear envelope forms around each group of chromosomes so there are now 2 nuclei Cytokenesis occurs next 9 (not part of mitosis)

385
Q

What occurs in anaphase, the 3rd of mitosis?

A

Centromers divide Separating each pair of sister chromatids, the spindles contract pulling the chromatids to the opposite ends of the cell

386
Q

What occurs in the second step of mitosis, metaphase?

A

The chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell (laying sideways), and become attached to the spindle by their centromers Metaphase checkpoint, checks to see that all chromosomes are attached to the spindle before it can continue

387
Q

Describe what occurs in the first step of mitosis, prophase?

A

Chromosomes condense Centrioles start moving to opposite ends of the cell, forming a network of protein fibres across it called spindle Nuclear envelope breaks down and chromosomes lie free in the cytoplasm

388
Q

What’s a chromosome, a chromatid, sister chromatids, homologous pairs and a centromere?

A

A chromosome is half the X before replication in interphase, and is the whole X shape after replication A chromatid is the part of the X which would be there before replication SIster chromatids, and the bottom or top 2 parts of the X paired up Homologous pairs are when there’s 1 chromosome from the mum and 1 from the dad, they have the same genes in the same order, but will have different allels Centromere joins the 2 strands of the chromosome in the middle

389
Q

What occurs during interphase?

A

The cell carries out normal functions, but also prepares to divide Cell’s DNA is replicated, to double it’s genetic content, the organelles are also replicated so it has spare ones ATP content is increased (provides energy for cell division)

390
Q

The 6 steps in cell division?

A

Interphase Prophase (Mitosis) Metaphase (Mitosis) Anaphase (Mitosis) Telophase (Mitosis) Cytokenesis

391
Q

What occurs at G1 checkpoint and G2 checkpoint?

A

G1 checkpoint: Cell checks that the chemicals required for replication are present, and for any DNA damage before entering the s Phase G2 checkpoint: The cell checks if all the DNA has been replicated without damage, to see if it can enter the M phase

392
Q

Describe the cell cycle briefly?

A

Order: Cell division: M phase- cell division and cytokenesis Interphase: cell growth and reproduction G1 G1 checkpoint S G2 checkpoint