Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

PSYC211 > Module two - Machado > Flashcards

Module two - Machado Flashcards

1
Q

orientation of the midbrain

A

anterior/rostral
posterior/caudal
superior/dorsal
inferior/ventral

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

lateral

A

towards the side

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

medial

A

toward the midline

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

ipsilateral

A

on the same side

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

contralateral

A

on the opposite side

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

dorsal/superior

A

top

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

ventral/inferior

A

below

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

rostral/anterior

A

front

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

caudal/posterior

A

back

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

terms for slices of the brain

A

horizontal, coronal, sagittal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

fissure

A

longitudinal (down the middle)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

corpus callosum

A

white matter allowing the two hemispheres to speak to other.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

cerebellum

A

just above the brain stem at the front of the brain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

thalamus

A

a subcortical structure that relays and filters information from the senses and transmits the information to the cerebral cortex.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

brain stem structures

A

midbrain (superior and inferior colliculi)

pons

medulla.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

ventricular system

A

consists of inter-connected cavities with cerebrospinal fluid.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

cerebral cortex

A

divided into two hemispheres and four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

what is the brain made of?

A

10% neurons, 90% glial cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

structure of neurons

A

dendrites, cell body, axon, axon terminals.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

dendrites

A

extend from the cell body. receive input from other neurons.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

soma

A

cell body

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

axon

A

extends from the cell body and sends messages to other cells (some are covered in myelin)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

myelin

A

a fatty substance formed by oligodendrocytes - speed up the electric signals between cells.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

axon terminals

A

where the axon comes into contact with another neuron

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

synapse

A

where two neurons meet, there is a tiny gap called a synapse. signals cross this gap using chemicals released by a neuron. the chemical diffuses across the gap makes the next neuron transmit an electrical signal

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

pre- and post-synaptic.

A

pre (before the synapse, goes from electrical to chemical) post (after the synapse, goes from chemical to electrical signals)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

three main types of glial cells

A

astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglial cells.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

astrocytes

A

form blood brain barrier.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

produce myelin in CNS to cover axons.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

microglia

A

remove debris left by dead brain cells.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

what is an action potential?

A

electrical impulse that travels down the axon triggering the release of neurotransmitters.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

what causes action potentials

A

sensory input

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

single cell recording

A

recording the action potential from a single neuron

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

receptive field

A

cells only respond to stimuli in a region of space (receptive field) of that cell.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

when do we use functional imaging (fMRI)

A

when multiple cells will be firing at once. it gives us an overall representation of the active cells. we can then estimates the number of cells there.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

maps of neural activity

A

we can map different action in auditory cells and when we’re smelling things etc.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

what is cognitive neuroscience

A

branch of neuroscience that focussed on brain function and dysfunction - relates behaviour to brain function

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

what is cognitive psychology

A

branch of psychology that focuses on complex mental processes such as perception learning and memory.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

brain lesion analysis

A

uncovers how the brain works by studying those lesions in specific regions. if we can find a commonality between impairments of a group of people with damage to one area then we can attribute that impairment to the damaged area of the brain. a control group is needed.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

electroencephalography (EEG)

A

recording of the electrical activity of the brain, pattens are usually really similar across people (unless there is something wrong). this means we can use this to pick up abnormal activity as seizures.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

event related potentials (ERP)

A

Based on EEG. involves time locking an event so we can see how the brain responds to certain events.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

how do we remove noise from ERP

A

averaging a large number of trials.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

latency, amplitude, topography

A

speed of activity, how much activity, where was the activity.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

ERP strengths and weaknesses

A

strength: temporal resolution (timing).
weakness: spatial resolution (where)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

neuroimaging

A

the use of various techniques to provide pictures of the structure and function of the living brain.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

structural imaging

A

computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

positron emission tomography (PET)

A

patient needs to be injected with radioactive material, invasive, shows a concentration of radioactive substance showing a functional view of the brain.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

adaptation of MRI that records changes related to metabolic activity in successive images in order to produce a functional view of the brain, non-invasive, magnets are used.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation

A

non-invasive, uses a coil to stimulate parts of the brain. can be excitatory (causes movement) or inhibitory (stops movement).

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

converging methods with brain scanning

A

it is best to combine information from all these tools to gain clearer conclusions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

how do we hear (simple terms)

A

ear captures sound waves and auditory receptors turn this mechanical energy of vibrations caused by sound waves into electrical signals that get transmitted to the brain

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

parts of the outer ear

A

pinna (ear folds) and auditory canal (ends at the eardrum)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

middle ear parts

A

ear drum and ossicles (middle ear bones that transfer energy to the inner ear)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
54
Q

inner ear parts

A

cochlear (spiral shaped fluid filled tube) that contains hair cells that act as receptors for sound. the vibrations cause the fluid to move that moves the hair cells that transform the mechanical energy into electrical energy.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
55
Q

spiral ganglion cells

A

tuned to a specific frequency of sound.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
56
Q

tinnitus

A

hearing sound where there is none in the external environment such as a buzzing or ringing (caused by disease of spontaneous activity such as loud music)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
57
Q

how does auditory information get to the brainstem.

A

it travels through the vestibulocochlear nerve which is also related to balance.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
58
Q

is hearing bilateral

A

yes, the information can stay on the same side of the brain or cross over. this is why when we have damage to one cortex it doesn’t affect hearing except localisation of sound can sometimes be harder.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
59
Q

which is the first region of the cortex to process sound

A

primary auditory cortex located in the superior temporal lobe (cells are laid out in order of frequencies making it easier to interpret different frequencies.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
60
Q

how do we tell where a sound comes from? (localisation)

A

related to the slight difference in time it takes to arrive at the two ears (sounds on the right will get to the right ear before the left). The time difference is called intramural time.

61
Q

sound localisation on the vertical plane

A

not as good in humans but is related to the shape of our ears. our brain recognises and learns the shape of our own ear and the patterns in where the sound is coming from vertically. if the pinnae are covered our vertical lateralisation is impaired.

62
Q

pathway of sound

A

external ear -»> middle ear -»> inner ear -»» brain stem -»»> thalamus -»»> cortex.

63
Q

sclera

A

the white of the eye - continuous with the cornea.

64
Q

macula

A

the central area of the retina that is specialised for central vision.

65
Q

fovea

A

the visual image received by the fovea is the least distorted; marks the centre of the retina and the centre of the macula.

66
Q

muscles of the eye

A

there are three pairs of extra ocular muscles which are inserted into the sclera enabling the eye to move.

67
Q

the flow of visual information within the retina

A

photoreceptors, bipolar cells, ganglion cells.

68
Q

information about light flows in what direction

A

nerve fibres, to ganglion cells, to bipolar cells, to photoreceptors (rods and cones).

69
Q

blind spot in the eye.

A

where light hits the optic nerve, there are no cells there to receive information.

70
Q

optic disk

A

where axons of retinal ganglion cells exit from retina and then form optic nerve.

71
Q

temporal view

A

the half of the retina furthest away from the nose (temporal hemiretina)

72
Q

nasal view

A

half of the retina close to the nose (nasal hemiretina)

73
Q

what happens if the left optic nerve is cut

A

vision from the left eye will be lost completely.

74
Q

what happens if the optic chiasma is transected

A

peripheral vision will be lost.

75
Q

what happens if the left optic tract is cut

A

vision of the right hemifield will be completely loss

76
Q

optic nerve

A

axons of ganglion cells are called this before the cross as the optic chasm.

77
Q

optic tract

A

axons of the ganglion are called this after they cross at the optic chasm.

78
Q

retinotectual pathway

A

retina, thalamus, primary visual cortex.

79
Q

lateral geniculate pathway

A

the left and right LGN re the two major targets of the two optic tracts.

80
Q

primary visual cortex

A

receives visual inputs, first region of the cortex to process visual information.

81
Q

phosphene threshold for people on ecstasy and not

A

those on ecstasy had a lower phosphene threshold.

82
Q

sensory integration

A

different senses can be integrated into vision to influence our perception - example seeing a puppet speaking because you can hear the voice and see the mouth moving.

83
Q

cells responding to a receptive field

A

each cell has it’s own limited region of space. the cell will fire when something is in that region.

84
Q

what are neuron in the MT selective for?

A

direction and speed of motion.

85
Q

subtraction methods

A

there is a lot of other activity going on in the brain so we need to isolate certain activity to what we are looking at. Experimental condition (activity of interest) minus the control condition (assists towards isolating the activity linked to event of interest)

86
Q

what does the dorsal stream code

A

motion and location (where)

87
Q

what does the ventral stream code

A

detailed stimulus features and object identification (what).

88
Q

interconnectivity of the extra striate cortex

A

different areas (V1-V5) are not all connected with each other and do not flow sequentially from one area to the next (there are some projections directly from V1 to V5). This information is all integrated to provide a coherent visual experience.

89
Q

area V4

A

located along the ventral stream, selective for colour and form.

90
Q

area V5

A

located along the dorsal stream, also called area MT, selective for direction and speed of motion.

91
Q

what pathway is subcortical vision

A

retinotectual pathway

92
Q

what pathway is cortical vision

A

retinogeniculostriate pathways (90% of axon in the optic tract)

93
Q

which cortical system evolved first

A

the subcortical system, the cortical system evolved later on.

94
Q

sprague effect

A

the restoration of orienting towards the cortically blind hemifield - results from cutting fibres that originate in another nearby structure and project to the superior colliculus on the same side as a cortical lesion.

95
Q

important points for the sprague effect

A

removing visual cortex was devastating for the cat, subcortical visual pathways were unable to compensate for the damaged cortical visual pathways until the ipsilateral superior colliculus was released from normal inhibition (thus disinhibiting the subcortical visual pathway on the side of the cortical damage)

96
Q

visual cortex vs. superior colliculus damage

A

in a localisation task cortical damage didn’t matter but subcortical damage did and vice versa for a discrimination task.

97
Q

what does complete damage to V1 within one hemisphere do?

A

renders patient hemianopic

98
Q

hemianopic

A

the rods and cones are still firing but the patient has no conscious, awareness of anything in the ipsilateral hemisphere of vision.

99
Q

blindsight

A

the term coined to residual vision where people still see things outside their own conscious awareness

100
Q

what does blindsight suggest

A

the subcortical visual pathway in human may play an important role in orientating towards visual stimuli.

101
Q

activity of neurons in the deeper layers of the superior colliculus - monkeys.

A

recorded deeper neurons during eye movement, found that these neurons have a movement field they move even when in darkness, a large population of broadly tuned cells are active for each eye movement.

102
Q

what is a saccade

A

a rapid eye movement.

103
Q

overall conclusion about neurons in deeper layers

A

they can have vasomotor or pure motor capabilities.

104
Q

superior colliculus lesion experiment in humans

A

eye movements were recorded, results suggested that the superior colliculus plays an important role in generating rapid eye movement towards stimuli that appear in the contralateral hemifield.

105
Q

reflective eye movements.

A

helps survival, often referred to as exogenous eye movements because they are driven by external stimuli

106
Q

fixation reflex

A

triggered by an external visual stimulus projecting onto central vision, superior colliculus is important for this.

107
Q

saccade and fixation reflexes

A

eye movements and fixation are opponent processes.

reflexive saccades help our eyes move in order to foveate a sudden change in the visual periphery, whereas the fixation reflex helps our eyes maintain their position.

108
Q

fixation offset experiment

A

the fixation offset effect provides a measure of responsiveness of the fixation reflex, they found that having the original stimulus present made looking at the target stimulus a lot slower than if it disappeared when the target appeared.

109
Q

voluntary eye movements.

A

choosing to move our eyes towards something whether or not there is external stimulation.

called endogenous.

110
Q

endogenous eye task.

A

fixate on centre, an arrow head will appear pointing towards a box on the screen, look at the box and then fix gaze back to centre.

111
Q

exogenous eye task

A

this is reflex eye movements. fixate in centre and move gaze to where the object appears.

112
Q

effects of TMS over cortex on saccades (REM)

A

for endogenous task saccades direct towards the contralateral hemifield were delayed when TMS was over the prefrontal cortex. TMS over the parietal lobe did not affect the speed. for the exogenous task the TMS did not produce a response.

113
Q

conclusion of the delay in contralateral endogenous saccade

A

was a consequence of disrupting the normal operation of the frontal eye field.

114
Q

experiment where patients had lesions

A

those that had lesions in the frontal eye field had delayed eye movements to the contralateral hemifield.

115
Q

conclusion of the experiment with frontal eye lesions

A

frontal eye fields are normally involved in generating voluntary eye movements.

116
Q

reflexive eye movements depend more on what?

A

subcortical structures.

117
Q

voluntary eye movements depend more on what

A

cortical structures.

118
Q

why so reflexive eye movements happen faster

A

because less connections need to be made - fewer neural connections need to be made. less processing compared to voluntary eye movements.

119
Q

reflexive orienting

A

humans rely on reflexive orienting to avoid danger but reflexive behaviours are not always advantageous.

120
Q

cortex and subcortex at birth

A

newborns are believed to have mature subcortical structure but cerebral cortex is not fully developed.

121
Q

fixation offset effect in infants

A

compared to the older infants 1.5 month olds showed slower responses indicating the fixation reflex was stronger. maturation of the cortex in older babies allowed better strategic control.

122
Q

when do frontal lobes fully develop

A

15-20 years of age

123
Q

anti-saccade task

A

fixate on centre, when stimulus appears move eyes in the opposite direction, return eyes to centre - this required inhibition of a reflexive saccade followed by execution of a voluntary saccade.

124
Q

who performs better on the anti-saccade task in children

A

those aged 15 performed better than children 5-8 years who had the most directional errors.

125
Q

why are younger children worse at the anti saccade task

A

because of delayed maturation of the frontal lobes. damage to frontal lobes in adults should cause the poorer performance to return.

126
Q

reflexive saccades in those with damage to one frontal eye field

A

poor performance on contralateral stimuli but performed fine for ipsilateral stimuli, supports hypothesis that frontal eye field normally imposes inhibitory control over the ipsilesional oculomotor circuitry that generates reflexive saccades.

127
Q

relationship between frontal eye field and superior colliculus

A

each SC controls reflexive eye movements towards the contralateral field.

128
Q

healthy aging

A

neurons die over time so performance in anti saccade tasks decrease over time.

129
Q

frontal lobe enables what

A

efficient voluntary control over visual orienting.

130
Q

the oculomotor system

A

oculomotor behaviour is determined by cells in a number of brain areas at the subcortical and cortical levels.

subcortical cells mediate more primitive reflexive oculomotor responses.

phylogenetically newer cortical cells impose control over primitive reflexes via projections to subcortical cells, facilitating them when advantageous and inhibiting them when disadvantageous.

131
Q

visual attention is determined by what

A

things in our external environment (exogenous influences) and internal factors (endogenous influences)

132
Q

which visual task take more control (exogenous/endogenous)?

A

endogenous (more conscious control and awareness, voluntary not as reflexive)

133
Q

overt vs. covert shifts of attention

A

overt is looking directly at something and paying attention to it whereas covert is paying attention but not looking directly.

134
Q

effects of covert attention on occipital lobe activity found that

A

there was a stronger response when stimulus appeared where participants were covertly focusing their attention (indicates that focusing on one part means we lose focus of other parts of our visual field).

135
Q

movements of attention difference between exogenous and endogenous.

A

exogenous shifts are elicited by an external stimulus (superior colliculus is responsible) endogenous shifts of attention are elicited internally (cortical neurons are important).

136
Q

facilitation

A

if there is something indicating where a stimulus is going to appear we react quicker when the stimulus does appear (attention facilitates responses).

137
Q

inhibition of return

A

when attention is directed towards a location and there is a long delay before a target appears, the reaction time is longer because inhibition of return discouraged us from looking at the location again because there was nothing there earlier.

138
Q

what is the flanker task used for?

A

assessing the efficacy of strategic control over attention (how easily distracted a participant is) - measured by RT on incongruent trials minus congruent trials.

139
Q

steps of brain development

A

cell division
cell migration
cell differentiation

140
Q

cell division

A

stem cells divide into two cells, newly divided cells migrates away to take up position in the cortex and stem cell remains to undergo more division.

141
Q

cell migration

A

we form one layer at a time, as new cells come they move past already formed cells to a newly formed layer.

142
Q

cell differentiation

A

newly divided cells take on the appearance and characteristics of a neuron of glial cells.

143
Q

plasticity

A

refers to the ability of the nervous system to change and learn new things, plasticity declines as we get older.

144
Q

results of the study rewiring the brain of newborns

A

after the animals were raised to adulthood the neurons in PAC in the rewired hemisphere behaved like visual neurons in response to visual stimuli.

145
Q

results fo the effects of stimulating visual cortex in adults with impaired vision

A

results indicated that the effect of activating the visual cortex is altered in people with severe visual impairment, as evidenced by a reduction in the ability to elicit light flashes in people with a high degree of visual impairment (especially if those people have been blind since birth).

146
Q

results of study on mental imagery in sighted and congenitally blind adults

A

in both congenitally blind and sighted participants, the production of mental images was associated with activation of the visual cortex (even if they’d never seen before).

147
Q

training and plasticity in humans study - results

A

greater changes to blood flow occurred in the contralateral primary motor cortex for trained than for untrained sequences after only three weeks of training and greater changes still occurred even after 8 weeks of no training.

148
Q

conclusion about training and plasticity in the human brain

A

in the human adult brain, training can induce relatively rapid changes in brain activity that reflect the plastic ability of the nervous system to acquire and retain new information and skills.

149
Q

the ageing brain and plasticity

A

brain becomes less plastic, size of hippocampus reduces, this can be combatted with engagement in aerobic exercise which increases the size of hippocampus.

PSYC211 (2 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions