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Chemistry > Module Seven - Organic Chemistry > Flashcards

Module Seven - Organic Chemistry Flashcards

Nomenclature Hydrocarbons Products of Reactions Involving Hydrocarbons Alcohols Reactions of Organic Acids and Bases Polymers

1
Q

how many types of carbon bonds are there?

A

3 (single, double, triple)

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2
Q

what are the first eight prefixes in naming alkanes/alkenes/alkynes?

A

1: meth-
2: eth-
3: prop-
4: but-
5: pent-
6: hex-
7: hept-
8: oct-

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3
Q

what determines that a compound is an alkane?

A

only has single bonds

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4
Q

what determines that a compound is an alkene?

A

has at least one double bond

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5
Q

what determines that a compound is an alkyne?

A

has at least one triple bond

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6
Q

what is the general formula for alkane?

A

CnH(2n+2)

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7
Q

can alkanes be both straight-chained and branched?

A

yes

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8
Q

what are the two types of alkanes (structure-wise)?

A
  • straight-chained

- branched

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9
Q

what is the prefix of a based on when naming a compound?

A

the longest chain in the compound (parent chain)

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10
Q

how are substituents ordered when naming a compound?

A

in alphabetical order

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11
Q

what is the purpose of the numbers before the substituents when naming a compound?

A

shows the position of the substituent on the parent chain

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12
Q

which end do you start counting from when naming a compound?

A
  • the end with the more significant section of the compound (functional group)
  • smallest addition of substituent positions
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13
Q

what is the general formula for alkene?

A

CnH2n

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14
Q

what is the general formula for alkyne?

A

CnH(2n-2)

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15
Q

how is the position of a bond named in an alkyne/alkene?

A

by putting the number position in front of the name

e.g. 2-butyne

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16
Q

what are halogenated organic compounds?

A

compounds where a hydrogen/s is replaced with a halogen (haloalkanes)

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17
Q

how are halogens included when naming halogenated organic compounds?

A
  • similar to substituents
  • -ine is replaced with -o
  • if appeared multiple times, write all positions
  • alphabetical order
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18
Q

what are a few halogens?

A

fluorine, bromine, iodine, chlorine

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19
Q

what are isomers?

A

same molecular formula but different structure

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20
Q

what are the three types of structural isomers?

A

chain, functional group, position

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21
Q

what are a few uses of alkanes?

A
  • methane: main component of natural gas

- propane: liquid petroleum gas

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22
Q

can hydrocarbons conduct electricity?

A

no

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23
Q

why can’t hydrocarbons conduct electricity?

A

lack of dipole or ionic charges

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24
Q

are hydrocarbons soluble in water?

A

no

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25
Q

why aren’t hydrocarbons soluble in water?

A

they are non-polar

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26
Q

can hydrocarbons dissolve in non-polar substances?

A

yes!!!

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27
Q

why can hydrocarbons only be dissolved in non-polar substances?

A

like dissolves like babey

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28
Q

do hydrocarbons have low melting and boiling point?

A

yes

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29
Q

why are hydrocarbons have low melting and boiling point?

A

formation of weak dispersion forces between molecules

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30
Q

what are chain isomers?

A
  • same molecular formula

- the length in parent chain is different

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31
Q

what are functional group isomers?

A
  • same molecular formula

- different functional groups

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32
Q

what are position isomers?

A
  • same molecular formula
  • probably same parent chain length
  • positions of substituents are different
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33
Q

what are functional groups?

A

particular groups of atoms that allow for ‘families’ of organic compounds to share similar chemical properties

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34
Q

what are homologous series?

A

series or ‘families’ of compounds with different functional groups

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35
Q

what functional group belongs to alcohol?

A

hydroxyl group (-OH)

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36
Q

what functional group shows aldehyde?

A

double bonded O in last carbon

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37
Q

what functional group shows a ketone?

A

double bonded O on a middle carbon

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38
Q

what functional group shows a carboxylic acid?

A

double bonded O and hydroxyl (-OH) on last carbon

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39
Q

what functional group shows an ester?

A

double bonded O, single-bonded O, with an R chain

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40
Q

what functional group shows an amine?

A

-NH2

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41
Q

what functional group shows an amide?

A

double bonded O with NH2 on last carbon

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42
Q

what is the suffix for a haloalkane?

A

-ane

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43
Q

what is the suffix for alcohols?

A

-ol

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44
Q

what is the suffix for aldehydes?

A

-al

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45
Q

what is the suffix for ketones?

A

-one

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46
Q

what is the suffix for carboxylic acids?

A

-oic acid

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47
Q

what is the suffix for esters?

A

alkyl -oate

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48
Q

what is the suffix for amines?

A

-amine

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49
Q

what is the suffix for amides?

A

-amide

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50
Q

what is an example of a haloalkane?

A

bromoethane

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51
Q

what is an example of an alcohol?

A

ethanol

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52
Q

what is an example of an aldehyde?

A

propanal

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53
Q

what is an example of a ketone?

A

propanone

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54
Q

what is an example of a carboxylic acid?

A

ethanoic acid

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55
Q

what is an example of an ester?

A

methyl ethanoate

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56
Q

what is an example of an amine?

A

ethanamine

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57
Q

what is an example of an amide?

A

methanamide

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58
Q

what are a few uses of alcohol?

A
  • beverages
  • additive to petrol
  • solvent in medicine
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59
Q

what is the general formula for alcohol?

A

CnH(2n+1)OH

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60
Q

what are the three types of alcohols?

A
  • primary (1°)
  • secondary (2°)
  • tertiary (3°)
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61
Q

what is a primary alcohol?

A

one carbon atom is bonded to the carbon atom with the -OH

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62
Q

what is a secondary alcohol?

A

two carbon atoms are connected to the carbon atom with -OH

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63
Q

what is a tertiary alcohol?

A

three carbon atoms are connected to the carbon atom with -OH

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64
Q

what are the two factors that affect the properties of alcohols (boiling point and solubility)?

A
  • presence of the -OH group

- size of the hydrocarbon chain

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65
Q

do alcohols have a higher boiling point than alkanes/alkenes/alkynes?

A

yes

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66
Q

why do alcohols have a higher boiling point than alkanes/alkenes/alkynes?

A
  • presence of -OH
  • -OH can make hydrogen bonds between other -OH of the alcohol molecules
  • strength of hydrogen bonds is much greater than weak dispersion forces
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67
Q

is solubility of alcohols affected by the ratio between the polar -OH and non-polar hydrocarbon section?

A

yes

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68
Q

how is solubility of alcohols affected by the ratio between the polar -OH and non-polar hydrocarbon section?

A
  • small alcohols: effect of polar -OH group outweighs the non-polar hydrocarbon (very soluble)
  • larger alcohols: effect of the non-polar section outweighs the polar functional group (insoluble)
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69
Q

why are some larger alcohol soluble in water?

A

may have multiple hydroxyl groups that multiply the polarity

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70
Q

what is an example of a large soluble alcohol molecule?

A

glucose (5 hydroxyl groups!!!)

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71
Q

is the hydroxyl group polar?

A

yes

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72
Q

does chain length affect solubility in alcohols?

A

yes

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73
Q

what are the two main types of carbonyl compounds?

A

aldehydes + ketones

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74
Q

what is the difference between a ketone and aldehyde?

A

the double bond in aldehydes are at the end of the chain, while ketones are in the middle

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75
Q

what is an example of a functional group isomer?

A

aldehyde and ketones

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76
Q

what are dipole-dipole bonds?

A

attractive forces between the positive end of one polar molecule and the negative end of another polar molecule

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77
Q

do aldehydes and ketones have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons?

A

yes

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78
Q

why do aldehydes and ketones have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons?

A

dipole-dipole bonds

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79
Q

do aldehydes and ketones have higher boiling points than alcohols?

A

no

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80
Q

why do aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling points than alcohols?

A

hydrogen bonds are stronger than dipole-dipole bonds

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81
Q

are aldehydes and ketones more soluble than hydrocarbons?

A

yes

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82
Q

why are aldehydes and ketones more soluble than hydrocarbons?

A

the carbonyl group is highly polar

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83
Q

are aldehydes and ketones more soluble than alcohols?

A

no

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84
Q

why are aldehydes and ketones less soluble than alcohols?

A

hydroxyl group is more polar than carbonyl group

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85
Q

does chain length affect solubility of aldehydes and ketones?

A

yes

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86
Q

how does chain length affect aldehyde and ketone solubility in water?

A

as chain length increases, solubility decreases (non-polar outweighs polar)

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87
Q

what is the general formula of aldehydes?

A

RCHO

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88
Q

what is the general formula of ketones?

A

RCOR’

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89
Q

what is the general formula for carboxylic acids?

A

CnH(2n+1)COOH

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90
Q

what is the common name for acetic acid?

A

vinegar

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91
Q

what functional group contains are carboxyl group?

A

carboxylic acid

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92
Q

what is a carboxyl group?

A

contains a carbonyl (C=O) and hydroxyl (-OH) together

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93
Q

what is another name for ethanoic acid?

A

acetic acid (CH3COOH)

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94
Q

do carboxylic acids have a higher boiling point than hydrocarbons?

A

yes

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95
Q

do carboxylic acids have a higher boiling point than alcohols?

A

yes

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96
Q

do carboxylic acids have a higher boiling point than aldehydes and ketones?

A

yes

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97
Q

why do carboxylic acids have a higher boiling point than hydrocarbons, alcohols and aldehydes/ketones?

A

as two carboxylic acid molecules can form TWO hydrogen bonds with one another

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98
Q

does chain length affect the solubility of carboxylic acids?

A

yes (larger = less soluble)

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99
Q

are carboxylic acids weak or strong?

A

weak

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100
Q

what type of acids are carboxylic acids?

A

weak monoprotic acids

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101
Q

what is a monoprotic acid?

A

acid donates only one proton or hydrogen atom per molecule to an aqueous solution

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102
Q

are carboxylic acids soluble in water?

A

small carb acids are soluble

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103
Q

how are carboxylic acids soluble in water?

A

the carboxyl group forms h-bonds with the water

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104
Q

what does it mean when an acid is weak?

A

will only partially ionise in water

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105
Q

how is an amide formed from an amine?

A

amine + carboxylic acid –> amide

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106
Q

what is the general formula for amines?

A

RNH2

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107
Q

what are the three types of amines?

A

primary, secondary, teritary

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108
Q

what is a primary amine?

A

has one alkyl group attached to the nitrogen

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109
Q

what is a secondary amine?

A

has two alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen

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110
Q

what is a tertiary amine?

A

has three alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen

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111
Q

are amines polar?

A

yes

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112
Q

how are amines polar?

A

nitrogen is very electronegative (NH2 is very polar)

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113
Q

why can’t tertiary amines form hydrogen bonds?

A

there are no hydrogens connected to the nitrogen in a teritary amine

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114
Q

do amines have a higher a boiling point than alcohols?

A

no

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115
Q

why do amines have a lower a boiling point than alcohols?

A

nitrogen is less electronegative than oxygen

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116
Q

are amines soluble in water?

A

yes (small primary and secondary)

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117
Q

why are amines soluble in water?

A

hydrogen bonding

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118
Q

are tertiary amines soluble?

A

no

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119
Q

why are tertiary amines insoluble?

A

lack a N-H bond to create h-bonds with the water

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120
Q

why is the boiling points of tertiary amines lower than primary and secondary amines?

A

lacks a N-H bond, so therefore cannot form hydrogen bonds

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121
Q

from what functional group are amides derived from?

A

carboxylic acids

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122
Q

how are amides derived from carboxylic acids?

A

when the -OH of the carb acid is replaced by -NH2 (amine)

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123
Q

what structural unit do all amides have?

A

-CO-NH-

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124
Q

how many types of amides are there?

A

three

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125
Q

what are the three types of amides?

A

primary, secondary, tertiary

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126
Q

what is a primary amide?

A

only one alkyl group attached to the -CO-NH-

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127
Q

what is a secondary amide?

A

has two alkyl groups attached to the -CO-NH-

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128
Q

what is a tertiary amide?

A

has three alkyl groups attached to the -CO-NH-

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129
Q

what is the genral formula of amides?

A

RCONHR’

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130
Q

is the boiling point of a tertiary amide lower than primary and seconday amide?

A

yes

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131
Q

why is the boiling point of a tertiary amide lower than primary and seconday amide?

A

has no N-H bond to form hydrogen bonding

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132
Q

why do amides generally have a high melting-boiling point and solubility?

A

has two polar bonds to create strong intermolecular bonds

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133
Q

what are the three ways an organic compound can enter the body?

A

inhalation, absorption, and ingestion

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134
Q

what is the effect of inhaling an organic compound?

A

organic compound will dissolve in the blood through the lungs and travel throughout the body, where it can accumulate

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135
Q

what is the effect of absorbing an organic compound through the skin?

A

the compound will dissolve through the skin and enter the bloodstream and travel throughout the body, accumulating inside organs

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136
Q

what is the effect of ingesting an organic compound?

A

the organic compound will be dissolved in the stomach, entering the bloodstream, and travel around the body, accumulating in organs

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137
Q

what are the hazardous physical properties of organic compounds?

A

volatility, flash point

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138
Q

what does volatile mean?

A

easily evaporated in regular temperatures

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139
Q

are most organic compounds volatile?

A

yes

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140
Q

why are compounds being volatile dangerous?

A

colourless vapours can fill the room and be inhaled

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141
Q

what makes an organic compound volatile?

A

weak intermolecular forces

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142
Q

what does flashpoint mean?

A

degree of flammability (lowest temperature a compound can be at before being ignited)

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143
Q

what are a few symptoms of skin contact with dangerous organic compounds?

A

burning or tingling, rashes, welts, chemical burns

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144
Q

what are the two levels of organic chemical poisoning?

A

acute, chronic

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145
Q

what are the symptoms of acute organic compound poisoning?

A

headaches, dizziness, affected reaction time and vision, poor coordination

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146
Q

what are the symptoms of chronic organic compound poisoning?

A

fatigue, physical weakness, mood swings, liver/kidney damage

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147
Q

how does one end up suffering from chronic organic compound poisoning?

A

after repeated exposure of years

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148
Q

what are the methods of prevention in the safety of using organic compounds?

A

minimisation, isolation, ventilation

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149
Q

how does minimisation help prevent organic compound poisoning?

A

by reducing (minimising) the use of particular dangerous compounds

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150
Q

how does isolation help prevent organic compound poisoning?

A

physical separation from chemicals can reduce exposure significantly

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151
Q

what are a few examples of small-scale isolation when handling organic compounds?

A

lab coat, goggles, gloves

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152
Q

how does ventilation help prevent organic compound poisoning?

A

draws fumes away from the user

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153
Q

what are the two levels of ventilation when handling organic compounds?

A

small-scale, large-scale

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154
Q

what does small-scale ventilation include when handling organic compounds?

A

fume cupboard that will draw fumes upwards and away from the user

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155
Q

what does large-scale ventilation include when handling organic compounds?

A

giant extractor systems that clear room and factory vapours

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156
Q

who deals with organic waste?

A

chemical waste disposal companies

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157
Q

what is the main disposal rule when handling organic compounds?

A

to not wash down the sink

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158
Q

why is it inappropriate to wash organic compounds down the sink?

A

chemicals will accumulate in sewer systems, and thus into our water ways, which’ll poison aquatic life

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159
Q

what are the methods used by larger companies when dealing with organic waste?

A
  • neutralisation: removal of acid and base

- filtration: removal of solid particles

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160
Q

are double and triple carbon bonds weaker than single carbon bonds?

A

no, they are stronger

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161
Q

are alkenes and alkynes more reactive than alkanes?

A

yes

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162
Q

can alkenes and alkynes undergo combustion?

A

yes

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163
Q

what is combustion?

A

substances are burnt in the presence of oxygen, releasing energy

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164
Q

what are the two types of combustion?

A

complete and incomplete

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165
Q

what makes the difference between complete and incomplete combustion?

A
  • the amount of oxygen present

- production of carbon/carbon monoxide

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166
Q

what is an addition reaction

A

the addition of atoms by breaking the double or triple bond

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167
Q

what substances can be reacted with an alkene/alkyne in an addition reaction?

A
  • hydrogen (H2)
  • water (H2O)
  • hydrogen halides (HX)
  • halogens (X2)
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168
Q

what hydrocarbons can undergo addition reactions?

A

alkenes and alkynes

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169
Q

what is the addition of hydrogen in an addition reaction?

A

hydrogenation

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170
Q

what is hydrogenation?

A

the addition of hydrogen to an alkene/alkyne in an addition reaction

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171
Q

what are alkenes converted to in an addition reaction?

A

alkanes

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172
Q

what is required in the process of hydrogenation?

A

metal catalyst

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173
Q

are alkenes unsaturated or saturated?

A

unsaturated

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174
Q

are alkynes unsaturated or saturated?

A

unsaturated

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175
Q

what are alkynes converted to in an addition reaction?

A

alkenes

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176
Q

what is the addition of halogens called in an addition reaction?

A

halogenation

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177
Q

what is halogenation?

A

the addition of halogens to an alkene/alkyne in an addition reaction

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178
Q

what is a hydrogen halide?

A

molecule with a hydrogen atom and halogen atom

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179
Q

what are a few examples of hydrogen halides?

A

hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide

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180
Q

what is the addition of water called in an addition reaction?

A

hydration

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181
Q

what is hydration in an addition reaction?

A

the addition of water to an alkene/alkyne in an addition reaction

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182
Q

what substance is required for water to be added to an alkene/alkyne in an addition reaction?

A

dilute sulfuric acid catalyst

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183
Q

what is a popular chemical that is produced through hydration (addition reaction)?

A

ethanol

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184
Q

what will be produced through the hydration of an alkyne?

A

ketone

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185
Q

what are the two reactions involving saturated hydrocarbons?

A

combustion, substitution with halogens

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186
Q

can all hydrocarbons undergo combustion?

A

yes!

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187
Q

what is required for alkanes to undergo halogen substituion?

A

UV light

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188
Q

what is produced when alkanes under halogen substitution?

A

haloalkanes

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189
Q

what does halogen substitution in alkanes include?

A

a halogen atom substitutes for a hydrogen atom

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190
Q

what two elements is optimal for halogen substitution in alkanes?

A

chlorine and bromine

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191
Q

why is UV light required in halogen substitution in alkanes?

A

will not occur unless sufficient amounts of energy is supplied

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192
Q

what is a qualitative experiment that models halogen substitution?

A

bromine water experiment

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193
Q

what does the bromine water test tell us?

A

allows us to distinguish between a alkane and alkene

  • alkene: brown –> colourless
  • alkane: brown –> brown
194
Q

how does the bromine water test work?

A

under UV light, the alkene double bond will break open and react with the bromine, discolouring the water, making it colourless

195
Q

what is a halogen substitution example?

A

methane + bromine –> bromomethane + hydrogen bromine

CH4(g) + Br2(aq) –> CH3Br(aq) + HBr(g)

196
Q

where are hydrocarbon primarily sourced from?

A

crude oil, natural gas

197
Q

what is crude oil?

A

a mixture of hydrocarbons

198
Q

how is crude oil processed to make hydrocarbons?

A

fractional distillation

199
Q

what does fractional distillation do?

A

seperate substances with different boiling points

200
Q

how does fractional distillation work?

A
  1. crude oil is heated at the bottom of the tower
  2. the gases rise up each column (high heat –> low heat)
  3. whenever a substance gets below its boiling point, it will condense into a liquid
  4. substance is then extracted through the multiple exits of the tower
201
Q

what is the order of condensation of substances in fractional distillation?

A

highest boiling point –> lowest boiling point

202
Q

what is a potential environmental impact of mining and transporting oil and gas?

A

possible contamination of habitats in the case of oil spills during transport

203
Q

what is a potential economic impact of mining and transporting oil and gas?

A

loss in jobs in tourism and fishing industry due to depletion of fish stocks due to disruption of habitat

204
Q

what is a potential sociocultural impact of mining and transporting oil and gas?

A

psychological stress due to job loss and mortgage stress

205
Q

what is the greenhouse effect?

A

the trapping of the sun’s warmth in the Earth’s atmosphere due to being absorbed by greenhouse gases

206
Q

how is the use of hydrocarbons related to the greenhouse effect?

A

CO2 from fossil fuel combustion is considered a greenhouse gas, which traps in heat

207
Q

how does carbon dioxide result in a rise in global temperature?

A

CO2 absorbs infrared radiation

208
Q

what are a few consequences of the greenhouse effect?

A
  • melting ice caps
  • global warming
  • climate change
  • affected ice formation
  • rising sea levels
209
Q

how does using fossil fuels lead to more acidic oceans?

A

CO2 from fossil fuel combustion is absorbed in the sea, making it acidic

210
Q

what are the equations related to the acidifying of the ocean due to CO2?

A

CO2(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H2CO3(aq)

H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)

211
Q

what is the largest impact of decreasing pH of the ocean?

A

death of coral reefs

212
Q

how do polymers cause waste?

A
  • made of hydrocarbons
  • causes environmental impacts
  • pollution and waste
213
Q

what is enthalpy of combustion?

A

heat energy that is released when 1 mole of fuel is combusted

214
Q

what is the formula for quantity of heat?

A

q = mc∆T

215
Q

what is enthalpy?

A

measure of total energy possessed by a substance

216
Q

how do you calculate change in enthalpy?

A

∆H= -q/n

217
Q

is the change in enthalpy always negative in combustion?

218
Q

why is the change in enthalpy always negative in combustion?

A

heat is released, so the internal energy of the substance decreases

219
Q

what is the purpose of calorimetric experiments?

A

measure the enthalpy of combustion of alcohols (fuels)

220
Q

what does it mean when an alcohol is dehydrated?

A

loss of water to form alkenes

221
Q

what substance/s is required to dehydrate alcohol?

A
  • concentrated H2SO4

- phosphoric acids

222
Q

what is an example of the dehydration of an alcohol?

A

2- butanol –> 1-butene + H2O

223
Q

how is an alkyl halide formed?

A

alcohol + hydrogen halide

224
Q

what is the general reaction for the substitution of hydrogen halides (HX) in alcohols?

A

R-OH + H-X –> R-X + H2O

225
Q

what is formed when an alcohol is reacted with a hydrogen halide?

A

alkyl halide

226
Q

what is an example of hydrogen halides substitution in alcohols?

A

2-methyl-2-propanol + HCl –> 2-chloro-2-methylpropane +H2O

227
Q

which type of alcohol reacts the quickest with hydrogen halides?

A

tertiary alcohols

228
Q

why do tertiary alcohols react the fastest with hydrogen halides?

A

it is the most reactive out of the three types of alcohol

229
Q

which hydrogen halide is the most reactive?

A

hydrogen iodide (HI)

230
Q

which hydrogen halide is the least reactive?

A

hydrogen fluoride (HF)

231
Q

what is the trend of reactivity for hydrogen halides on the periodic table?

A

reactivity increases down the halogen group

232
Q

what are the types of reactions with alcohol?

A
  • dehydration
  • combustion
  • hydrogen halide substitution
  • oxidation
233
Q

can all types of alcohols be oxidised?

A

only primary and secondary

234
Q

what are the two oxidising agents used in alcohol oxidation?

A
  • acidified permanganate ion (MnO4-)

- dichromate ion [Cr2O7(2-)]

235
Q

what is formed through the oxidation of primary alcohols?

236
Q

what is an example of the oxidation of a primary alcohol?

A

ethanol –> ethanal

237
Q

what are the two steps of oxidising a primary alcohol?

A

alcohol –> aldehyde –> carboxylic acid

238
Q

what oxidising agent is used to oxidise a primary alcohol?

A

dichromate ion [Cr2O7(2-)]

239
Q

what is the colour change when a primary alcohol is oxidised?

A

orange –> green

240
Q

what is the colour change when a secondary alcohol is oxidised?

A

purple/pink –> brown/colourless

241
Q

is there a second stage when oxidising a secondary alcohol?

242
Q

what substance can be used to oxidise secondary alcohols?

A
  • acidified permanganate ion (MnO4-)

- dichromate ion [Cr2O7(2-)]

243
Q

what is an example of a secondary alcohol oxidisation?

A

2-propanol –> propanone

244
Q

what is the colour change when a tertiary alcohol is oxidised?

A

no colour change, as it cannot be oxidised

245
Q

what causes the colour change in the oxidisation of the alcohol?

A

the alcohol does not change colour, but the oxidising agent does

246
Q

what are the three methods used in producing alochols?

A
  • from alkenes
  • from halogenated organic compounds
  • fermentation
247
Q

how are alcohols produced from alkenes?

A

water + alkene

- in the presence of H2SO4

248
Q

what is an example of an alcohol being produced from an alkene?

A

1-butene + H2O –> 2-butanol

249
Q

how are alcohols produced from halogenated organic compounds?

A

water + haloalkane

250
Q

what type of reaction is the production of alcohol from halogenated organic compounds?

A

substitution reaction

- halogen atom is replaced by -OH

251
Q

what is an example of an alcohol being produced from a halogenated organic compound?

A

2-bromobutane + H2O –> 2-butanol

252
Q

why are haloalkanes more likely to undergo substitution reactions than non-halogenated alkanes?

A

C-halogen is easier to break than C-C or C-H

253
Q

what is bond energy?

A

the amount of energy required to break a chemical bond

254
Q

why can’t fluoroalkanes undergo reaction with water to form alcohols?

A

C-F bond too hard to break

255
Q

how many different types of haloalkanes are there?

256
Q

what are the different types of haloalkanes?

A

primary, secondary, tertiary

257
Q

how are alcohols produced through fermentation?

A

break down of sugars by yeast to produce alcohols in an anaerobic environment

258
Q

what is fermentation?

A

conversion of sugars to alcohols in an anaerobic environment

e.g. glucose –> ethanol

259
Q

what substance is significant in the process of fermentation?

260
Q

what is the role of yeast in fermentation?

A

yeast will produce ethanol as a by-product from processing glucose

261
Q

what are the different types of sugars?

A
  • monosaccharides
  • disaccharides
  • polysaccharides
262
Q

which type of sugar is the most simple?

A

monosaccharides

263
Q

what are examples of monosaccharides?

A

glucose, fructose

264
Q

what are monosaccharides?

A

simple sugars consisting of single ring structures with 4-6 carbons

265
Q

what are disaccharides?

A

consists of two carbon rings

266
Q

how are disaccharides produced from monosaccharides?

A

two monosaccharides undergo a condensation reaction to produce disaccharides

267
Q

what is an example of a dissacharide?

268
Q

what are polysaccharides?

A

multiple monosaccharides and disaccharides joined together

269
Q

what are examples of polysaccharides?

A

cellulose, starch

270
Q

which type of sugar is yeast most efficient at breaking down?

A

monosaccharides

271
Q

how are monosaccharides produced from disaccharides?

A

hydrolysis

272
Q

what conditions are required fro fermentation?

A
  • low temperature (~33˚C)
  • slightly acidic (6.1-6.8)
  • anaerobic environment
273
Q

why must the conditions be met for fermentation?

A

if not met, the enzymes will denature, and thus will not produce alcohol

274
Q

what are the two main types of fuel?

A

fossil fuels and biofuels

275
Q

what are the two types of biofuels?

A
  • ethanol

- biodiesel

276
Q

what type of fuel is primarily used?

A

fossil fuels

277
Q

what are fossil fuels?

A

decayed animal and plant matter

278
Q

what are biofuels?

A

produced from renewable resources

279
Q

what are some examples of fossil fuels?

A

coal, crude oil and natural gas

280
Q

why is the combustion of fossil fuels bad?

A

greenhouse effect from produced CO2

281
Q

why are biofuels considered renewable?

A

can be continuously produced from crops, algae or animal waste

282
Q

what are biodiesels made of?

A

fats and oils

283
Q

what is process of making biodiesel called?

A

transesterification

284
Q

what is a disadvantage of biofuels?

A
  • cost

- vehicle modifications

285
Q

what is the ester functional group?

286
Q

what is the general formula for an ester?

A

R-C=O-O-R’

287
Q

what is a physical property that can help identify an ester?

A

pleasant fruity smell

288
Q

what is the main use of esters in the industry?

A

artificial flavouring

289
Q

what is an ester link?

A

the functional group part of an ester

290
Q

how are esters made?

A

carboxylic acid + alcohol –> ester

291
Q

how are esters named?

A
  1. alkyl comes from the alcohol - the part with the single bonded oxygen (-anol to -yl)
  2. second part comes from the acid - the part with the double bonded oxygen (-ioc acid to - oate)
    e. g. propanol + methanoic acid –> propyl methanoate
292
Q

what is a functional group isomer of esters?

A

carboxylic acid

293
Q

are esters polar?

294
Q

why are esters polar?

A

presence of C-O and C=O

295
Q

do esters have a higher or lower boiling point than carboxylic acids?

296
Q

why do esters have a lower boiling point than carboxylic acids?

A

main intermolecular force is dipole-dipole

297
Q

are esters highly soluble in water?

298
Q

why aren’t esters soluble in water?

A
  • lack of hydrogen bonding

- presence of large hydrophobic alkyl groups

299
Q

what substances are esters soluble in?

A

organic solvents

300
Q

what type of reaction is esterification?

A

condensation

301
Q

what is produced in esterification?

A

ester + water

302
Q

what are the conditions for esterification?

A
  • requires a catalyst (conc. H2SO4)

- high temperatures

303
Q

what type of equipment is required for esterification?

A

reflux apparatus

304
Q

what is the reflux process?

A

reactants are heated for an extended amount of time without the loss of any reactants and products

305
Q

how is there no loss of substances during esterification?

A

all evaporated gaseous substances are cooled down in the vertical condenser

306
Q

how can the yield in esterification be increased?

A

adding a reagent in excess to push the reaction towards the product side

307
Q

why is it required to purify an ester after refluxing?

A

flask will contain both organic and inorganic substances

  • organic: ester, carb acid, alcohol
  • inorganic: water, sulfuric acid
308
Q

what piece of equipment is used to purify an ester?

A

separating funnel

309
Q

what is the purpose of a separating funnel?

A

separates immiscible liquids according to density

  • low density at the top
  • high density at the bottom
310
Q

what steps are included in purification of an ester?

A
  1. washing with water
  2. addition of sodium carbonate
  3. distillation
311
Q

what is the purpose of washing the ester with water during ester purification?

A

removes water soluble substances

  • put in a separating funnel
  • organic substances will rise to the top
  • leaves ester in top layer
  • bottom layer can be separated
312
Q

what is the purpose of washing the ester with water during ester purification?

A

remove any carboxylic acid

313
Q

what is the purpose of washing the ester with water during ester purification?

A

isolate the ester from other contaminants

314
Q

what is the most common organic acid?

A

carboxylic acid

315
Q

what do organic acids include?

A
  • straight chain carboxylic acids

- more complex acids

316
Q

what are a few examples of organic acids?

A

methanoic acids, ethanoic acid, citric acid

317
Q

what is a common organic base?

318
Q

what are organic bases based on?

A

nitrogen compounds (amines)

319
Q

do organic and inorganic acids and bases react similarly?

320
Q

are organic acids generally weak or strong?

321
Q

do organic acids usually have a low or not so low pH?

A

not so low

322
Q

what can organic acids react with?

A

active metals, bases and carbonates

323
Q

what is produced in the reaction between organic bases and acids?

A

a protonated amine

324
Q

what are the three types of detergent?

A

anionic, cationic, non-ionic

325
Q

what does dissolving soap in water do?

A

lowers surface tension

326
Q

what is the purpose of a surfactant?

A

lowers surface tension of water

327
Q

how does a surfactant lower surface tension of water?

A

breaks h-bonds between the water molecules, spreading them out

328
Q

what are the two important properties of soaps and detergents?

A
  • surfactant

- emulsifier

329
Q

what is an emulsifier?

A

can cause two immiscible liquids to mix, causing an emulsion

330
Q

what does immiscible liquids mean?

A

unable to mix together

331
Q

how are soaps related to fatty acids?

A

soaps are salts of fatty acids

332
Q

what do soaps consist of?

A
  • long hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail

- hydrophilic head (carboxylate ion)

333
Q

what makes the head of a soap molecule hydrophulic?

A

it is polar due to the carboxylate ion

334
Q

what are anionic detergents?

A

have a negatively charged ion attracted to the head

e.g. Na+

335
Q

what are cationic detergents?

A

have a positively charged ion attracted to the head

e.g. Cl-

336
Q

what are non-ionic detergents?

A

have no ionic charge

337
Q

what are a few uses of anionic detergents?

A
  • laundry detergent
  • dishwashing detrgent
  • household cleaners
338
Q

what are a few uses of cationic detergents?

A
  • fabric softeners
  • hair conditioners
  • disinfectants
  • sanitisers
339
Q

what are a few uses of non-ionic detergents?

A
  • dishwasher detergents

- glass cleaners

340
Q

what are a few characteristics of anionic detergents?

A
  • good lather
  • negative charge
  • harsh
  • cheap
341
Q

what are a few characteristics of cationic detergents?

A
  • bond strongly to negatively charged surfaces
  • reduces static and friction
  • biocidal (kills bacteria)
  • expensive
342
Q

what are a few characteristics of non-ionic detergents?

A
  • low lather (no foam build up)

- expensive

343
Q

through what process are soaps made?

A

saponification

344
Q

what are the reactants in saponification?

A

triglyceride + hydroxide

345
Q

what is the general reaction of saponification?

A

fat (triglyceride) + hydroxide –> glycerol + fatty acid salts

346
Q

what is done in the process of saponification?

A
  • a fat/ oil is boiled with a hydroxide (e.g. NaOH)
  • soap is curdled at the surface to be collected
  • rest is precipitated at the addition of NaCl
347
Q

what is salting out?

A

the addition of NaCl in saponification to precipitate out more soap

348
Q

how do soaps and detergents work?

A
  1. soap is dissolved in the water
  2. hydrophobic tails is embedded into the grease, hydrophilic head sticking out (ionic head forms strong ion-dipole bonds with the water)
  3. grease is agitated, lifting grease molecules from the surface (water pulls through ion-dipole bonds)
  4. more soap molecules surround the grease particle
  5. micelle is formed
  6. micelles repel each other (negatively charges due to head) and form an emulsion
  7. rinsed off
349
Q

how can soaps be made at home?

A

vegetable oil + sodium hydroxide

350
Q

what do soaps form in hard water?

351
Q

do detergents form scum in hard water?

352
Q

what is the appropriate cleaning substance is more appropriate to use in hard water?

A

detergents (no scum)

353
Q

how is scum formed from soaps in hard water?

A

the cations (Ca2+ and Mg2+) bond with the carboxylate ions of soap to form a solid precipitate

354
Q

what is hard water?

A

water that contains high levels of Ca2+ and Mg2+

355
Q

how are carboxylate ions formed from carboxylic acids?

356
Q

how do alkenes form from alkynes?

A

hydrogenation (+X2)

357
Q

how do alkanes form from alkenes?

A

hydrogenation (+H2)

358
Q

how do haloalkanes form from alkanes?

A

substitution of X2 with UV light

X = halogen

359
Q

how do alcohols form from alkenes?

A

dehydration (-H2O)

360
Q

how do alkenes form from alcohols?

A

hydration (+H2O)

361
Q

how do haloalkanes form from alkenes?

A

addition (+HX)

362
Q

how do haloalkanes form from alkynes?

A

hydrogenation/halogenation (+HX/X2)

363
Q

how do alcohols form from haloalkanes?

A

hydration (+H2O)

364
Q

how do haloalkanes form from alcohols?

A

hydrogenation (+HX)

365
Q

how do alcohols form from glucose/sugars?

A

fermentation

366
Q

how do ketones form from alcohols?

A

oxidation of secondary alochols

367
Q

how do esters form from alcohols?

A

addition of carboxylic acids

368
Q

how do aldehydes form from alcohols?

A

oxidation of primary alcohols

369
Q

how do carboxylic acids form from aldehydes?

370
Q

how do esters form from carboxylic acids?

A

addition of alcohol

371
Q

how do amides form from carboxylic acids?

A

addition of amine

372
Q

how are amides formed from alkenes?

A

alkenes –> alcohols –> aldehydes –> carboxylic acids –> amide

373
Q

how are esters formed from alkanes?

A

alkanes –> haloalkanes –> alcohols –> esters

374
Q

how are aldehydes formed from alkynes?

A

alkynes –> haloalkanes –> alcohols –> aldehydes

375
Q

how are carboxylate ions formed from alcohols?

A

alcohols –> aldehydes –> carboxylic acids –> carboxylate ions

376
Q

how are carboxylic acids formed from haloalkanes?

A

haloalkanes –> alcohols –> aldehydes –> carboxylic acids

377
Q

how are amides formed from alkynes?

A

alkynes –> haloalkanes –> alcohol –> aldehydes –> carboxylic acids –> amides

378
Q

how are carboxylate ions formed from glucose/sugars?

A

glucose/sugars –> alcohols –> aldehydes –> carboxylic acids –> carboxylate ions

379
Q

how are haloalkanes formed from glucose/sugars?

A

glucose/sugars –> alcohols –> haloalkanes

380
Q

how are alkenes formed from glucose/sugars?

A

glucose/sugars –> alcohols –> alkenes

381
Q

how are carboxylic acids formed from alkynes?

A

alkynes –> haloalkanes –> alcohols –> aldehydes –> carboxylic acid

382
Q

how are esters formed from haloalkanes?

A

haloalkanes –> alcohols –> esters

383
Q

how are aldehydes formed from glucose/sugars?

A

glucose/sugars –> alcohols –> aldehydes

384
Q

how are amides formed from alcohols?

A

alcohols –> aldehydes –> carboxylic acids –> amides

385
Q

how are alcohols formed from alkynes?

A

alkynes –> haloalkanes –> alcohols

386
Q

what are synthetic polymers also known as?

387
Q

what are few concerns surrounding plastic use?

A
  • plastic pollution

- depleting resources

388
Q

what do polymers consist of?

A

monomers joined by covalent bonds

389
Q

what are the two types of polymerisation?

A

addition and condensation

390
Q

what are thermoplastic polymers?

A
  • can soften and be remoulded

- easily recyclable

391
Q

what are the different types of polymers?

A
  • high density polyethylene (HDPE)
  • low density polyethylene (LDPE)
  • polypropylene (PP)
  • polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
  • polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
  • polystyrene (PS)
392
Q

what are the two types of polyethylene?

A
  • high density (HDPE)

- low density (LDPE)

393
Q

what makes a polyethylene low density?

A
  • branched chains
  • weak bonding due to weaker dispersion forces b/w further apart chains
  • amorphous (disordered)
394
Q

what makes a polyethylene high density?

A
  • linear chains
  • stronger bonding due to closer dispersion forces b/w chains
  • crystalline (ordered)
395
Q

where is ethylene obtained from?

396
Q

how are addition polymers formed?

A

formed by adding together monomers without loss of any atoms

397
Q

what are the molecule requirements for addition polymerisation to occur?

A
  • the monomer must have C=C

- bond will open to allow new bonds to form

398
Q

what monomer is polyethylene consisting of?

399
Q

what is the general formula for polyethylene?

A

n(CH2=CH2)

400
Q

what is required to start up LDPE polymerisation?

A

an initiator

401
Q

what conditions are required to form LDPE?

A
  • high temperature (~300°C)

- higher pressures (1000-3000 atm)

402
Q

why are the chains in LDPE branched?

A

some hydrogens are replaces by alkyl groups

403
Q

what are the properties of LDPE?

A
  • low density
  • low melting point
  • greater flexibility
  • soft
  • transparent
  • impermeable to water
404
Q

what conditions are required to form HDPE?

A
  • low pressure (few atm)

- low temperature (~60°C)

405
Q

what are the properties of HDPE?

A
  • higher density
  • high melting point
  • less flexible
  • opaque
  • rigid
406
Q

what are a few uses of LDPE?

A
  • plastic bags
  • plastic food wrap
  • lamination for paper
  • milk cartons
407
Q

what are a few uses of HDPE?

A
  • detergent bottles
  • bottle caps
  • 3D printer filament
  • fuel tanks
408
Q

what is the general formula of PTFE?

A

n(CF2=CF2)

409
Q

what does the tetrafluoroethylene monomer consist of?

A
  • 2 carbons (double bonded)

- 4 fluorines

410
Q

what is the common name for PTFE?

411
Q

is PTFE strong?

412
Q

why is PTFE strong?

A
  • polar C-F bonds
  • dipole-dipole interactions
  • resistant to the formation of dispersion forces
413
Q

what are a few uses of PTFE?

A
  • coating on non-stick pan
  • electrical insulation
  • artificial body parts
414
Q

what does PTFE stand for?

A

polytetrafluoroethylene

415
Q

what does PVC stand for?

A

polyvinyl chloride

416
Q

what is the general formula for PVC?

A

n(CH2=CH-Cl)

417
Q

what is the monomer for PTFE called?

A

tetrafluroethylene

418
Q

what is the monomer of PVC called?

A

vinyl chloride

419
Q

what does the vinyl chloride monomer consist of?

A
  • 2 carbons (double-bonded)
  • 3 hydrogens
  • 1 chloride
420
Q

is PVC strong?

421
Q

why is PVC strong?

A

polar due to highly electronegative Cl

- dipole-dipole + dispersion forces b/w molecules

422
Q

what are plasticisers?

A

small molecules inserted between each polymer chain, to move them further apart - making the intermolecular forces weaker

423
Q

what is the purpose of plasticisers?

A

makes polymer more flexible

424
Q

what is the most widely used polymer?

425
Q

which polymer is the cheapest?

426
Q

what does PS stand for?

A

polystyrene

427
Q

what is the monomer of PS called?

428
Q

how is styrene made from ethylene?

A

hydrogen replaces by benzene

429
Q

what is the general formula for PS?

A

n(CH2=CH-benzene)

benzene = C6H6

430
Q

is PS amorphous?

431
Q

how is PS amorphous?

A

the benzene sticking out of the chain makes them further apart - weaker intermolecular forces

432
Q

why are the PS molecules non-polar?

A

symmetry of the phenyl ring

433
Q

are the PS molecules polar?

434
Q

what is the force holding PS molecules together?

A

dispersion forces

435
Q

what are some physical properties of PS?

A
  • clear
  • hard
  • brittle
  • soft when heated
  • rigid when cooled
436
Q

what does PP stand for?

A

polypropylene

437
Q

how many variations are there for the structure of PP?

438
Q

why are there variations of the PP structure?

A

dependent on the orientation of the CH3 group

439
Q

what are the three variations of PP structure?

A
  • atactic
  • syndiotactic
  • isotactic
440
Q

what is the atactic arrangement in PP structure?

A

-CH3 group is randomly placed

441
Q

what is the result of atactic arrangement in PP structure?

A
  • chains cannot lie close together

- weak forces

442
Q

what is the syndiotactic arrangement in PP structure?

A

-CH3 groups alternate above and below the chain

443
Q

what is the result of syndiotactic arrangement in PP structure?

A
  • can pack somewhat closely

- fairly strong forces

444
Q

what is the isotactic arrangement in PP structure?

A

-CH3 groups are all on the same side

445
Q

what is the result of isotactic arrangement in PP structure?

A
  • can pack very closely

- maximum strength in forces

446
Q

what are the physical consequences of atactic arrangement in PP structure?

A
  • softer polymer

- lower melting point

447
Q

what are the physical consequences of syndiotactic arrangement in PP structure?

A

softer than isotactic, but tougher than atactic

448
Q

what are the physical consequences of isotactic arrangement in PP structure?

A
  • strong
  • hard
  • excellent resistance to stress & cracking
449
Q

what is the order of strength in tactic, isotactic and syndiotactic arrangement of PP molecules? (weakest to strongest)

A

atactic, syndiotactic, isotactic

450
Q

what are a few common uses of PP?

A
  • carpets
  • rope
  • twine
451
Q

what are a few common uses of PVC?

A
  • electrical insulation
  • garden hoses
  • pipes
452
Q

what are a few common uses of PS?

A
  • foam packing material
  • disposable drink cups
  • hard CD discs
453
Q

what are a few common uses of PTFE?

A
  • high-grade insulation

- non-stick surfaces

454
Q

what are the six important structural features in polymers?

A
  • crystallinity
  • branching
  • chain length
  • side groups
  • cross-linking
  • stability/biodegradability
455
Q

how does crystallinity affect polymer properties?

A
  • crystalline: closer together - strong intermolecular forces (more rigid, high melting point)
  • amorphous: disordered, tangled chains - weaker intermolecular forces (more flexible, lower melting point)
456
Q

how does branching affect polymer properties?

A
  • little to no branching: pack closely together - crystalline (denser, less flexible)
  • high branching: further apart - amorphous (more flexible)
457
Q

how does chain length affect polymer properties?

A
  • longer similar chain lengths: higher melting point, more rigid
  • shorter chains: difficult to mould, will sag
458
Q

how do side groups affect polymer properties?

A
  • bigger side group: reduces flexibility (stiff)
459
Q

how does cross-linking affect polymer properties?

A
  • linear chains are linked together
  • becomes more rigid
  • forms strong covalent/ionic bonds
460
Q

what is the importance of stability/biodegradability in polymers?

A
  • C-C & C-H are strong: more stable

- C-Cl bonds are weaker: will break if exposed to UV light for extended periods of time

461
Q

what are condensation polymers?

A

will condense out a small molecule during polymerisation

462
Q

what are the two types of condensation polymers?

A
  • polyester

- nylon

463
Q

what are the two types of nylon?

A
  • nylon-6

- nylon-6,6

464
Q

what structural requirement is required of monomers to undergo condensation polymers?

A

must have functional groups at the end

465
Q

what functional groups are suitable for condensation polymers?

A
  • NH2
  • OH
  • COOH
  • COCl
466
Q

what are polyesters?

A

condensation polymers that are joined by an ester link (-COO)

467
Q

what functional groups can be joined to form a polyester?

A

carboxylic acid: carboxyl (-COOH)

alcohol: hydroxyl (-OH)

468
Q

what is an example of polyester?

A

polylactic acid

469
Q

what is a use of polyester?

A

biodegradable surgical sutures

470
Q

what are polyamides?

A

condensation polymers that are joined by an amide link (H-N-C=O)

471
Q

what functional groups can be joined to form a polyamide?

A

amine (-NH2)

carboxyl (-COOH)

472
Q

what is a natural polyamide?

473
Q

what is the most commonly known synthetic polyamide?

474
Q

what are a few uses of nylon?

A
  • fabric fibres
  • machine components
  • domestic appliances
475
Q

what is the angle between the bonds when there are four single bonds around the C atom?

476
Q

what is the angle between the bonds when there is one double and two single bonds around the C atom?

477
Q

what is the angle between the bonds when there are two double bonds around the C atom?

478
Q

what is the angle between the bonds when there is one triple and one single bond around the C atom?

479
Q

what is the geometrical arrangement of the bonds when there are four single bonds around the C atom?

A

tetrahedral

480
Q

what is the geometrical arrangement of the bonds when there is one double and two single bonds around the C atom?

481
Q

what is the geometrical arrangement of the bonds when there are two double bonds around the C atom?

482
Q

what is the geometrical arrangement of the bonds when there is one triple and one single bond around the C atom?

Chemistry (8 decks)

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