Module 7 - LTM: Encoding, Retrieval, and Consolidation Flashcards
What are the two types of rehearsal?
● Maintenance rehearsal: Repeating information over and over in the head without consideration of meaning or making connections with other information, resulting in little or no encoding.
● Elaborative rehearsal: Repeating information over and over in the head with consideration of meaning or making connections with other information, which results in better memory than maintenance rehearsal
Explain the levels of processing theory.
The levels of processing theory states that memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives.
Depth of processing distinguishes between:
● Shallow processing: Involves little attention to meaning, such as focusing on the physical features of a word.
● Deep processing: Involves close attention and elaborative rehearsal that focuses on an item’s meaning and its relationship to something else; Deep processing results in better memory than shallow processing
What is the generation effect?
The generation effect is the finding that generating material yourself, rather than passively receiving it, enhances learning and retention
How does organisation improve memory?
Organising information during encoding can improve memory by:
● Serving as a retrieval cue - Remembering words in a particular category can help you recall other words in that category.
● Creating a framework that relates information to other information, making the material more meaningful and strengthening encoding.
● Reducing the load on memory by grouping smaller elements into larger, more meaningful units, similar to chunking
What is the retrieval practice effect? What is another name for this effect?
The retrieval practice effect is the finding that memory is better if material is retrieved during the learning process. This enhanced performance due to retrieval practice is also called the testing effect.
Retrieval practice is more effective for long-term retention than rereading
What are the two most effective study techniques?
The two most effective study techniques are:
● Practice testing
● Distributed practice
List six effective study techniques.
Six effective study techniques include:
1. Elaborate: Think about the meaning of the material and relate it to other information.
2. Generate and test: Actively create material and test yourself on it.
3. Organise: Create a framework to relate information to other information.
4. Take breaks: Study in shorter sessions with breaks in between, and sleep after studying to enhance consolidation.
5. Avoid illusions of learning: Recognise that familiarity does not equal understanding. Avoid relying too heavily on rereading and highlighting.
6. Be an active note-taker: Write your own notes by hand instead of typing them on a computer
What are retrieval cues?
Retrieval cues are stimuli that help people remember information stored in memory. Retrieval cues can be locations, smells, sounds, or anything else that is associated with the memory.
What is encoding specificity?
Encoding specificity is the principle that we encode information along with its context.
This means that we are more likely to remember information if we are in the same context during retrieval as we were during encoding
What is state-dependent learning?
State-dependent learning occurs when learning is associated with a particular internal state, such as mood or state of awareness.
Memory is better when a person’s internal state during retrieval matches their internal state during encoding. For example, people who studied a list of words while in a happy mood recalled the words better when they were happy again during testing
What is transfer-appropriate processing?
Transfer-appropriate processing is the principle that retrieval is better if the same cognitive tasks are involved during both encoding and retrieval. For example:
● Participants who encoded words using a rhyming task performed better when they were later given a rhyming test than a meaning test
What is consolidation?
Consolidation is the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted, to a more permanent state, in which they are more resistant to disruption. For example, presenting a second list of words immediately after the first list can disrupt consolidation of the first list
What are the two types of consolidation?
● Synaptic consolidation: Occurs at synapses and happens rapidly, over minutes or hours. It involves structural changes at synapses.
● Systems consolidation: Involves gradual reorganisation of neural circuits and happens more slowly, over months or years These two processes occur simultaneously: rapidly at the level of the synapse, and slowly at the level of neural circuits
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation. LTP is thought to be one of the neural mechanisms underlying learning and memory.
What is the standard model of consolidation?
The standard model of consolidation proposes that:
● The hippocampus encodes new memories and makes connections with higher cortical areas.
● Over time, the connections between the hippocampus and cortical areas weaken.
● Connections between cortical areas strengthen.
● Eventually, the hippocampus is no longer involved in those memories.
The hippocampus is critical during early stages of memory formation because it replays the neural activity associated with the memory and sends this information to the cortex, a process called reactivation. This helps to form connections between cortical areas.
