module 6 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the four general functions of the respiratory system?
A
- Air passageway (atmosphere & alveoli)
- Site for exchange (O2 and CO2)
- Detection of odor (olfactory receptor)
- Sound production (vocal cord vibration)
2
Q
Structural organization of the respiratory system
A
Upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract
3
Q
Upper respiratory system
A
- Nose
- Nasal cavity
- Pharynx
- Larynx
4
Q
Lower respiratory system
A
- Trachea
- Bronchus
- Lungs
- Bronchiole/Bronchus
5
Q
Functional organization of the respiratory system
A
Conducting zone and respiratory zone
6
Q
Conducting zone
A
Bulk movement of air into and out of lungs: nose to terminal bronchiole
7
Q
Conducting zone
A
Bulk movement of air into/out of the lungs (nose to terminal bronchioles)
8
Q
Respiratory zone
A
Diffusion of gasses into/out of the body: respiratory bronchiole, alveolar duct, and alveoli
9
Q
Respiratory zone
A
Diffusion of gasses (respiratory bronchiole, alveolar duct, and alveoli)
10
Q
Bronchiole tree
A
- Highly branched system of air-conducting passages that originates at the main bronchi
- At each point, bronchi decrease in size but increase in number of passageways (& surface area for exchange)
11
Q
Bronchiole tree
A
- Highly branched system of air-conducting passages that originate at the main bronchi
- At each point, decrease size but increase number of passageways and surface area
12
Q
Bronchioles and alveoli
A
- Have a large surface area for gas exchange
- High capillary density where gas exchange occurs
- Vascular smooth muscle (regulates the diameter of bronchioles)
- Elastic fibers allow for stretch and recoil
- Connective tissue for support
13
Q
Asthma
A
Episodes of bronchoconstriction; wheezing, coughing, shortness of breath, and excess mucus. Often caused by sensitivity to an airborne agent
14
Q
Asthma treatments
A
- Inhaled steroids
- Bronchodialators
15
Q
Alveoli
A
- Each lung contains 300 to 400 million
- Alveolar pores: openings provide collateral ventilation
- Surrounded by pulmonary capillaries
- Divided by interalveolar septum (contain elastic fibers)
16
Q
What are the three types of found in the alveoli
A
- Alveolar type 1
- Alveolar type 2
- Alveolar macrophages
17
Q
Alveolar type 1 cells
A
- Most abundant
- Make up the internal surface of the alveolus simple squamous
- Ideal for diffusion
18
Q
Alveolar type 2 cells
A
- Less common and smaller
- Simple cuboidal
- Produce and secrete surfactant (reduces surface tension and prevents collapsing)
19
Q
Alveolar macrophages
A
- Mobile scavengers
- Engulf foreign material, dust, bacteria, etc.
20
Q
Respiratory membrane
A
- Thin, large surface area
- Ideal for diffuison of gasses
21
Q
What three components of the respiratory membrane
A
- Capillary endothelium
- Basement membranes of capillary endothelium and alveolar epitheluim fused together
- Alveolar epithelium
22
Q
Anatomy of the lungs
A
Apex, base, diaphragm, ribs, costal surface, mediastinal surface
23
Q
Left lung
A
- 2 lobes divided by one fissure
- Smaller
- Cardiac impression on the medial surface
- Cardiac notch on the interior surface (heart development in the fetus)
24
Q
Right lung
A
3 lobes diveded by three fissures, larger and wider
25
Hilum (lungs)
Bronchi, pulmonary vessels, autonomic nerves, lymph vessels pass through here
26
Pulmonary circulation
Blood from the right ventricle to pulmonary capillaries, gas exchange - back to LV
27
Bronchiole circulation
blood from the systemic circulation providing oxygen and nutrient to the tissues of the lungs
28
8 steps of pulmonary ventilation
1. Air containing O2 is inhaled into alveoli
2. O2 diffuses from alveoli into the blood of pulmonary capillary
3. O2 is transported in blood to systemic cells of the body
4. O2 diffuses from the blood of systemic capillaries to systemic cells
5. CO2 diffuses from systemic cells into the blood of systemic capillaries
6. CO2 is transported in the blood to the lungs
7. CO2 diffuses from the blood into the pulmonary capillaries into alveoli
8. Air containing CO2 is exhaled
29
Boyle's Law- Relationship of pressure and volume
Constant temperature, the pressure of a gas decreases if the volume of the container decreases and vice versa
30
Volume and Pressure equation
(P1)(V1)=P2)(V2), P1 and V1 represent initial conditions and P2 and V2 are the changed conditions
31
What type of relationship to pressure and volume have?
Inverse
32
Air pressure gradient exits when force per unit area is...?
Greater in one place than another (high to low pressure)
33
The thoracic cavity and lungs are lined with what serous membrane called what?
Pleural cavity
34
Function of the pleura
Protects the lungs from abrasive forces, and allows lungs to adhere to the thoracic cavity (inhalation)
35
The pleural cavity is divided into what two sections?
Parietal pleura (outer) and Visceral pleura (inner)
36
Interpleural pressure
Pressure in the pleural cavity, lower
37
Intrapulmonary pressure
Pressure in the lungs, higher
38
Why does the interpulmonary pressure have to be higher than the intrapleural pressure?
It allows the lungs to stay inflated
39
What two factors help to keep the lungs inflated
Pleural cavity (fluid) and the difference in pressure
40
Quiet breathing
- Passive & unconscious process
- Involves the diaphragm and external intercostals
- Relatively small changes in thoracic cavity volume and intrapulmonary pressure
- Chest volume changes are not readily apparent
41
Volume change during inspiration
Thoracic cavity volume increases
42
Vertitical volume changes during inspiration
Increases due to contraction, diaphragm flattens
43
Lateral volume changes during inspiration
Increases as thoracic cavity widens as ribs elevate (external intercostals)
44
Anterior/posterior changes during inspiration
The inferior portion of the sternum moves anterior
45
What is the specific value of interpulmonary pressure (& atmospheric pressure) AT REST
760 mm Hg
46
What is the specific value of intrapleural pressure AT REST
756 mm Hg
47
Tidal volume
The amount of air inhaled and exhaled at rest
48
Inspiratory reserve volume
The extra volume of air that can be inhaled with maximal effort after reaching the end of normal inspiration
49
Expiratory reserve volume
The extra amount of air that can be exhaled with maximal effort after reaching normal expiration
50
Residual volume
The volume of air remaining in the lungs after expiratory reserve volume (maximum air that can move into and out of the lungs)
51
Vital capacity
The maximum amount of gas that can be expelled from the lungs after taking the deepest possible breath
52
Pathway of air through the respiratory system & functions
- Nasal cavity: transport, condition (humidity, ^temp, clean)
- Trachea: transport, clean
- Primary Bronchi: transport
- Bronchiole: transport
- Alveolar sac: diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2)
53
Pressure and flow realtionship
Direct, lager pressure = larger flow
54
Flow and resistance realtionship
Inverse, increased resistance = less flow
55
Flow equation
Flow = change in pressure/resistance
56
Resistance equation
R = (viscosity)(length)/radius^4
57
Less viscosity will do what do resistance
Decrease
58
What will increasing the length of the vessel do to resistance
Increase
59
What will increasing the vessel radius to do resistance
Decrease
60
If intrapulmonary pressure and intrapleural pressure are equal what will happen to air flow
There will be no air flow
61
What are the two muscles associated with quiet breathing?
Diaphram and intercostals
62
What is the specific value of intrapulmonary pressure during quiet inspiration (breath in)
758 mmHg
63
What is the specific value of intrapleural pressure during quiet inspiration (breath in)
754 mmHg
64
What is the exact value of intrapulmonary pressure during quiet expiration (breath out)
763 mmHg
65
What is the exact value of intrapleural pressure during quiet expiration (breath out)
756 mmHg
66
Tidal volume value- Quiet breathing
300-500 mL
67
Respiratory rate value - Quiet breathing
12-17 breaths/min
68
Minute ventilation & value - Quiet breathing
amount of air moving into and out of lungs (300mL, 3L)
69
Forced breathing requires additional
Muscles
70
Forced breathing causes greater change in what volume?
Thoracic cavity volume
71
Tidal volume value - Forced breathing
3000mL (500mL rest)
72
Respiratory rate value - Forced breathing
40 to 70 breaths per minute
73
Minute ventilation - Forced breathing
150 L/min to 200 L/min
74
Where is the control of breathing regulated?
Brainstem
75
Medulla - Control of breathing
Inspiration and expiration
76
Pons - Control of breathing
Rate and depth of breathing
77
Motor output of breathing
Diaphram and External intercostals
78
Sensory output of breathing
- Central chemoreceptors
- Peripheral chemoreceptors
Thermoreceptors =
- Cental hypothalamus
- Peripheral skin
- Skeletal muscle
79
Where are the peripheral chemoreceptors located?
Aortic arch and carotid sinus
80
The chemo receptors detect what (independently)
changes in PCO2 and H+ (&PO2)
81
When the body is cold, breathing will be
less frequent and deeper
82
When the body is warm, breathing will be
frequent and shallow
83
What percent of the air is N2?
79.04%
84
What percent of the air is O2?
20.93%
85
What percent of the air is CO2
0.03%
86
Daltons law
Total air= PN2 + PO2 + PCO2
87
Partial pressure,
Individual pressure, tells how much of one substance will diffuse in alveoli
88
Oxygen content in the blood will go from ___mmHg to ___mmHg when pumped through body
150, 40
89
Partial pressure drives what?
Diffusion of gas from alveoli to blood and then from blood to muscle
90
Systemic circulation blood vessels
many long blood vessels
91
Systemic pressure and resistance
higher pressure (120/80, 93 mmHg) and high resistance
92
Pulmonary circulation blood vessels
many small vessels
93
Pulmonary circulation pressure and resistance
Low pressure (15 mmHg) and low resistance
94
Oxygen carrying capacity
20 mL O2/100mL blood (1L O2/5L blood)
95
What percent of O2 is bound to hemoglobin in RBC
>98%
96
What percent of O2 is dissolved in the plasma
<2%
97
What does increase in pH do do hemoglobin saturation
Lower % saturation, more oxygen unloaded
98
What does a higher PCO2 do to hemoglobin saturation
Lower % saturation, more oxygen unloaded
99
What does a warmer blood temperature do to hemoglobin saturation
Lower % saturation, more oxygen unloaded
100
Effects of exercising muscle
Decreasing pH, increase in PCO2 and temperature, favor unloading oxygen
101
General functions of the urinary system
- Filters the blood and regulates blood volume
- Eliminates waste (urea, creatine)
- Regulates levels of ions (Na+, K+, Ca++, electrolytes)
- Regulate acid-base balance (H+, HCO3-)
- Eliminate biologically active compounds (hormones and drugs)
- Regulate blood pressure (fluid loss and # of RBCs)
102
Urea
Waste product of protein metabolism
103
Path of urine
- Kidney
- Renal pelvis (urine here)
- Ureter
- Urinary bladder
- Urethra
104
Kidneys are innervated by what nervous system
Autonomic NS
105
Role of sympathetic NS in kidneys
Blood vessel constriction/dilatation to regulate blood flow to kidneys
106
Role of parasympathetic NS in KIDNEYS
unknown
107
Role of parasympathetic NS in BLADDER
internal sphincter
108
Role of somatic NS in urination
external sphincter
109
Kidney stone
High concentration of calcium oxalate or uric acid form a solid structure, or stone
110
Nephron
The microscopic functional unit of a kidney, where the volume of urine is regulated
111
Glomerulus
tuft of capillaries
112
Afferent arteriole
blood flow into the glomerulus (towards), larger
113
Efferent arteriole
blood flowing out of the glomerulus (away), smaller
114
Proximal convoluted tubule
Tublue closer to the glomerulus, bundled/high surface area
115
Distal convoluted tubule
Tubule farther from glomerulus, bundled/high surface area
116
Glomerular filtration
The movement of substances from the blood within the glomerulus into the capsular space
117
What is the fluid in the glomerulus called
filtrate
118
Tubular reabsorption
The movement of substances from the tubular fluid back into the blood
119
Tubular secretion
The movement of substances from the blood into the tubular fluid
120
What are the three layers that make up the glomerular filtration membrane?
- Endothelium (blocks formed elements)
- Basement membrane (blocks large proteins)
- Filtration slits of the visceral layer (block small proteins)
121
What is included in filtrate?
Water, glucose, amino acids, ions, urea, some hormones, vitamins B and C, ketones, and a very small amount protiens
122
In what segment of the nephron does filtration occur?
Glomerulus
123
What happens in the PCT
- Reabsorption of nutrients, proteins, water, ions, etc into the blood
- Secretion of drugs, hormones, urea, waste
124
What happens in the nephron loop
Continuos reabsorption of water and ions (25% each)
125
what happens in the DCT
- Na+ reabsorption is regulated by aldosterone and ANP
- Water reabsorption regulated by aldosterone and ADH
- Amount of K+ secreted regulated by aldosterone
126
What does urine contain
Ion, water, nitrogenous waste, some hormones
127
What does urine NOT contain
Formed elements, nutrients, protein
128
What does the kidney excrete?
- Some hormones and drugs
- Urea (by-product of protien metabolism)
- Uric acid (a by-product of the breakdown of protiens)
- Creatinine
(we want to get rid of these things)
129
Antidiuretic hormone is released by what?
Anterior pituitary gland
130
What is the general function of antidiuretic hormone in the kidney?
Makes nephron more permeable to water
131
Exercise will cause ADH to ___
increase (& decrease UV)
132
Alcohol will cause ADH to ___
decrease (& increase UV)
133
Nightime will cause ADH to ___
increase (& decrease UV)
134
Atrial natriuretic peptide is released from where?
The heart (RA)
135
What impact would increased circulation hormone have on urine output
decreased urine volume
136
What is the general function of ANP?
Promote the loss of water (block water from leaving nephron and produce a larger urine volume)
137
What stimulates the release of ANP
Increased blood volume
138
ANP blocks the release of
__
ADH
139
Where is aldosterone released from?
Adrenal gland
140
What is the general function of Aldosterone in the kidney?
increased sodium absorption in the kidney which will increase osmolarity (ions, solute)
141
pH in urine
4.5-8
142
Specific gravity of urine (how much "stuff")
1.0 (pure water )-1.03 (more solute)
143
Water content of urine
93%-97%
144
Color of urine
Pale yellow
145
Odor of urine
variable with composition
146
Bacterial content of urine
trace amounts
147
Amount of protein in urine
trace amounts (5-10 mg/dL)
148
How much blood should be in the urine
none
149
Glycosuria
abnormally high levels of glucose in the urine (diabetes)
150
Protienuria
Excess protein in the urine (kidney trauma, hypertension, physical exertion, etc)
151
Hematuria
erythrocytes in the urine (kidney/urinary tract trauma)
152
Erythropotien mechanism (feedback loop)
imbalance in normal O2 levels, kidneys release erythropoietin, erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow, enhanced erythropotien increases RBC count, increases O2 carrying ability of blood
153
Micturition reflex
increased stretch of the detrusor muscle, activates PSNS, relaxes the internal urethral sphincter
154
What are the two categories of organs in the digestive system
GI tract (continuous hollow tube. breaks down and absorbs food) and accessory organs (some produce secretion into GI tract, assists in breakdown)
155
What are the GI tract organs
- Oral cavity
- Pharynx
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small and large intestine
156
What are the accessory organs
- Teeth
- Tounge
- Salvilary galnds
- Liver
- Galbladder
- Pancreas
157
Ingestion
introduction of food into the oral cavity, first step in digestion
158
Motility
the mixing and moving of material through the GI tract, involves voluntary and involuntary muscle contractions (all alone digestive tract)
159
Secretion
Process of producing and releasing substances that facilitate digestion. Produced by the accessory glands, salivary glands, liver, pancreas
160
Digestion
breakdown of ingested food into smaller components that can be absorbed from the GI tract
161
mechanical digestion
breakdown of food into smaller particles without changing the chemical composition
162
chemical digestion
involves specific enzymes that breakdown larger molecules into smaller ones
163
Absorbtion
involves membrane transport of ingested molecules (electrolytes, vitamins, minerals, water across epithelial membrane into the blood or lymph
164
Elimination
expulsion of ingestible components through the anal canal
165
What are the four general layers, tunics, of the GI tract
- Epithelium (secretion and absorption)
- Muscular (layers of smooth muscle, circular layer, and longitudinal layer)
- Mixing (back and forth motion, waves and segmentations)
- Propulsion (direction of movement, peristalsis)
166
Stretch receptors- nerve reflexes of the digestive system
detect stretch of GI tract wall
167
Chemoreceptors- nerve reflexes of the digestive system
monitor chemical contents in the lumen, reflexes (ANS or ENS) are initiated in response to receptor input
168
Short reflex - chemoreceptors
local reflex, only involves ENS, coordinate small segments of GI tract
169
Long reflex - chemoreceptors
involves sensory input to CNS and ANS output, coordinates GI tract mobility, secretions, and accessory digestive organs
170
PNS and SNS GI activity regulation
PNS promotes GI tract activity, and SNS opposes GI tract activity
171
Hormone control of digestive system
several hormones participate in regulation of digestion
172
Parotid - salivary glands
largest, 25-30% of the saliva
173
Submandibular - salivary glands
floor of the oral cavity and medial to mandible, produces about 60-70% of the saliva (most saliva)
174
Sublingual - salivary glands
Inferior to the tongue, 3%-5% of saliva
175
What does saliva contain?
water, electrolytes, salivary amylase (carbohydrate breakdown, pH sensitive- high), mucin, and lingual lipase (lipid breakdown, pH sensetive- low)
176
Esophagus function (pathway of food)
- Bolus enters through the esophageal sphincter (skeletal muscle)
- Waves of muscle contractions move the food bolus towards the stomach (peristalsis)
- Bolus enters the stomach after passing through the lower/inferior esophageal sphincter
177
Lower esophageal sphincter
regulates the passageway of food bolus into the stomach
178
Pyloric sphincter
regulates the passage of chyme from the stomach into the duodenum (small intestine)
179
Gastric mixing
- contractions of smooth muscle in the stomach wall mix bolus with gastric secretions to form chyme
- peristaltic waves result in pressure gradients that move stomach contents toward the polyoric region
180
Gastric emptying
- pressure gradient increases the force in pylorus against the pyloric sphincter
- pyloric sphincter opens, and a small amount of chyme enters the duodenum
- pyloric sphincter closes and retropulsion occurs
181
Vomiting
- Rapid expulsion of gastric contents through the oral cavity
- controlled by the vomiting center in the medulla oblongata
- responds to head injury, motion sickness, infection, toxicity, food irritation
- closure of nasal passages and the glottis
- danger of aspiration
182
Lower GI tract
- large intestine
- small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)
- accessory = liver, gallbladder, pancreas
183
Small intestine tunics
- hollow organ with circular folds (slow movement of chyme 3-5 hrs)
- large surface area
- multiple layers of smooth muscle that mix and propel the chyme through the small intestine
184
Villi increase _____ in the small intestine
surface area
185
Which lobe of the liver is larger
Right lobe
186
What is the second largest organ in the body?
liver
187
Right and left lobes of the liver are separated by what?
a large ligament
188
The liver produces what?
bile - aids in digestion
189
Where is bile stored
gallbadder
190
galbladder is ___ to the liver
posterior
191
What is stored in the liver
glycogen
192
Bile aids in what
digestion of lipids
193
Which organ has a head and tail
pancreas
194
_____ wraps around the head and and the tail points laterally
duodenum
195
Liver detoxifies the ___
blood
196
Endocrine glands secrete directly into the blood where exocrine glands secrete into ____
ducts
197
How does the pancreas (& gallbladder) get pancreatic juices (& bile) into the small intestine
ducts
198
Pancreatic juices breakdown ____
carbohydrates, fats, proteins (>90% exocrine cells)
199
Large intestine
- wide and shorter
- cecum, colon, and rectum
- absorbs water and electrolytes
- watery chyme compacted into feces
- stores feces until eliminated through defecation
200
speed of peristalsis
slow and sluggish
201
Large intestine produces ___
CO2
202
Mass movements of large intestine
- powerful contractions
- propel fecal matter towards rectum (2-3 times a day often after a meal)
203
Anal canal
last few centimeters of the large intestine
204
internal sphincter of anal canal
Involuntary smooth muscle to the base
205
External sphincter of anal canal
voluntary skeletal muscle
206
Carbohydrate digestion in the small intestine
- starts in the oral cavity: salivary amylase
- pancreatic amylase: produced by the pancreas and secreted into the small intestine
- pancreatic amylase continues digestion of starch that began in the oral cavity
- brush border enzymes break down starch into individual glucose molecules
207
Digestion of other disaccharides in small intestine
Specific enzymes needed, ex: lactase for lactose, sucrase breakdown of sucrose, both located in the brush border
208
Protein breakdown in the stomach
- begins within stomach lumen with pepsin (formed pepsinogen, inactive precursor)
209
Stomach's low pH factors
- due to HCl released from parietal cells
- activates pepsinogen to activate pepsin
- denatures protiens to facilitate chemical breakdown
- trypsinogen is activated to trypsin
single amino acids absorbed across epithelial cells, released into bloodstream
- stomach pH is about 2
210
Lipid digestion and absorption in the small intestine
- bile salts emulsify lipid droplets (pulls apart, higher surface area)
- pancreatic lipase breaks triglycerides in monoglycerides and free fatty acids
- triglycerides are reassembled and wrapped in a protien (chylomicrons) and absorbed into lacteals
211
Water absorption
- small intestine absorbs almost all ingested water
- absorbed across epithelia and into blood vessels via osmosis
212
Electrolyte and vitamin absorption
- small intestine absorbs almost all electrolytes and vitamins that enter
- most unregulated, depend on diet, except IRON
