Module 4 Biodiversity essential notes

Question 1

State the types of biodiversity

Answer 1

1. Habitat biodiversity 2. Species biodiversity 3. Genetic biodiversity

Question 2

Discuss what habitat biodiversity means

Answer 2

1. Habitat diversity refers to the number of environments on in which life exists
2. Each habitat contains the organisms adapted to survive there
3. The greater the habitat diversity, the greater the biodiversity overall
4. Sand dunes, woodland, meadows and streams are examples of different environmental conditions, allowing the survival of differently adapted organisms
5. Maintaining different habitats allows the great diversity in the types of species we have to be maintained

Question 3

Discuss what species biodiversity means

Answer 3

1. Species diversity refers to the variety of organisms in a habitat
2. It is made up of species richness and species evenness
3. Species richness refers to the number of different species in a habitat
4. Species evenness compares the proportions of the community made up by the different species
5. Having high species diversity maintains functioning ecosystems, and provides us with sustainable and valuable resources

Question 4

Discuss what genetic biodiversity means

Answer 4

1. Genetic diversity is a measure of the variety that exists within the species
2. It is measured by the number of genes present in the species (including all the different alleles)
3. Having high genetic variation in a species increases the chances of the species adapting to environmental changes (less likely to become extinct)

Question 5

Explain why sampling is necessary

Answer 5

1. It is important to quantify biodiversity to measure the possible impact of development, or conservation efforts
2. But counting every organism in a large area is impractical
3. Smaller areas of a habitat are therefore sampled
4. In a way that is representative
5. The data are used to make an estimate for the larger area

Question 6

Describe the principles of random sampling

Answer 6

1. Random sampling means the investigator does not select which areas or individuals will be sampled
2. This is a way that samples are made more representative and avoid bias
3. Random sampling is used when a two-dimensional area is being sampled, for example, with quadrats

Question 7

Describe how sampling can be made more reliable and representative

Answer 7

1. Removing as much bias as possible. For example, using random or systematic sampling
2. Accounting for daily and seasonal changes
3. Reducing the element of chance, by taking large sample sizes or repeat measurements

Question 8

Describe how you would use quadrats to estimate plant biodiversity in an area

Answer 8

1. Used to measure the biodiversity in a two-dimensional area
2. Often to compare and find the difference between two areas
3. Choose an area and decide on a representative number of samples
4. Arrange tape measures like x-y axes of a grid
5. Use a calculator to generate random numbers as coordinates
6. Place quadrats at determined coordinates and
   
   1. Record species richness by identifying species present using an identification key
   2. Record abundance of each species by estimation
7. Use species richness and evenness to determine biodiversity
8. Analysed with a t-test

Question 9

Describe how you would use transects to investigate plant biodiversity

Answer 9

1. Used to investigate the effect of a changing factor (such soil pH, moisture) over a particular linear distance
2. Decide on the distance for the transect
3. Place quadrat or point frame at regular intervals (systematic sampling) along the transect
4. For each quadrat record:
   
   1. The factor being investigated
   2. Any control variables
   3. Species present using identification key
   4. and estimate species abundance
5. Biodiversity at at each point in the transect can be calculated
6. Parallel transects can be used to repeat the investigation
7. Analysed with a Spearman rank correlation test

Question 10

Describe the ways in which plant abundance can be measured

Answer 10

1. Measuring actual density: if the individual plants are easy to count, record the number per the area of the quadrat
2. Percentage cover (frequency): using the number of grid squares the plant is present in to estimate a percentage
3. In a point frame, each species that touching each of the pins is recorded

Question 11

Describe the techniques that are appropriate for measuring animal abundance

Answer 11

Question 12

Describe how estimates of animal abundances can be made from sample collection

Answer 12

1. Large insects and small mammals that have been captured
2. Are marked (in a way that doesn’t cause harm) (C1)
3. They are then released, and traps are set again.
4. Some individuals are trapped again (C2)
5. The numbers of marked individuals captured again (C3), is used to estimate the total wild population
6. Using the equation Total population = (C1 x C2)/C3

Question 13

Describe how species richness and evenness can be used to determine the biodiversity of an area

Answer 13

1. The biodiversity index is made up of the species richness (number of species present) and the species evenness (to do with species abundance)
2. Recall the biodiversity index equation:
3. Where n is the number/abundance of each individual species
4. And N is the total abundance of all the species present
5. The higher the richness, and the higher the evenness, the closer to 1 the diversity index will be

Question 14

Describe the significance of a low Biodiversity index

Answer 14

1. Few successful (dominant) species in the ecosystem
2. Stressful or extreme environmental conditions, few niches
3. Few species make up the ecosystem, but with very specific adaptations
4. Simple food webs (look more like food chains)
5. Changes to the environment (human impact, climate change, new disease or predator) have a big impact on the ecosystem and could result in population eradication

Question 15

Describe the significance of a high Biodiversity index

Answer 15

1. High number of species in the ecosystem have large population (no single dominating species)
2. Less extreme conditions, more available niches for species to survive
3. Many species successful in the habitat, with fewer specific adaptations required
4. Complex food webs exist (each species has food options)
5. Ecosystems are more resilient to changes in the environment (human impact, climate change, new disease or predator)

Question 16

State the significance of genetic biodiversity

Answer 16

1. Genetic diversity refers to all the alleles present in a population
2. The more alleles present, the more chance that there are alleles that allow survival when environmental conditions change
3. This allows members of the population or species to continue to survive and reproduce
4. Such populations are more adaptable, and less vulnerable to extinction
5. The opposite is true for populations with low genetic biodiversity

Question 17

Describe the factors that can increase genetic biodiversity

Answer 17

1. Mutation is a process that creates new alleles
2. Interbreeding between distinct populations allows new alleles to enter a population

Question 18

Describe the factors that can reduce genetic biodiversity

Answer 18

1. Selective breeding
2. Captive breeding programmes
3. Use of artificial cloning over traditional propagation methods
4. Natural selection
5. Genetic bottlenecks
6. Founder effect
7. Genetic drift

Question 19

Describe how genetic biodiversity can be measured

Answer 19

1. When a particular gene locus has two versions of a gene (ie when an individual is heterozygous), this is known as a polymorphism
2. A population can be analysed for the proportion of gene positions that show polymorphism (heterozygosity)
3. (this can be done by analysing the DNA of each member of the population by electrophoresis)
4. The greater the proportion of genes that have multiple alleles, the greater the genetic biodiversity
5. This is represented by the equation:
6. Number of polymorphic gene loci/total gene loci

Question 20

State the (human influenced) factors that affect biodiversity

Answer 20

1. Deforestation
2. Agriculture
3. Climate change

Question 21

Describe how deforestation reduces biodiversity

Answer 21

1. Deforestation can be natural (eg forest fires) but is mostly due to human activity
2. Human population growth means forests resources and space is required (homes, travel, building)
3. Reduces tree abundance (reduces evenness)
4. If a particular species is removed, it reduces species richness in the area
5. Removes habitat for animal species so further reduces species richness

Question 22

Describe how agriculture reduces biodiversity

Answer 22

1. As human population growth occurs, using large areas of land for food production is required: agriculture
2. Agriculture may require deforestation to provide the space (see deforestation)
3. Hedgerows which are habitats for animal species may be removed for increased space and allowing more mechanisation
4. Use of chemicals such as herbicides and pesticides destroys certain plant and animal species as well as the food source for others reducing species richness
5. Replacing wild habitat with only type of crop is a monoculture, and dramatically reduces species richness
6. Furthermore, certain varieties of crops are preferentially grown, resulting in genetic variation reduction (genetic erosion)

Answer 23

1. The industrialisation required to maintain and develop lifestyles of the growing human population has resulted in activities that could affect the climate
2. Combustion of fossil fuels increases atmospheric greenhouse gases
3. These cause the temperature of the atmosphere to rise
4. This changes the climatic conditions of habitats all over the Earth

Question 24

Describe how climate change can reduce biodiversity

Answer 24

1. Communities of organisms have specific adaptations to survive in specific environmental conditions
2. If their conditions change, their adaptations may not allow them to survive.
3. They may be at risk of extinction or have to migrate to more suitable conditions
4. Melting of polar ice caps reduce the habitat for many species adapted to survive there
5. Rising sea levels may reduce terrestrial habitats
6. Changing temperatures and rainfall will affect plant species. This will affect the rest of the ecosystem
7. temperature-dependent insect development and behaviour may be affected, eg pollination carried out by bees
8. As animal populations migrate, any pathogens they carry (concept of vectors) may get introduced to new areas

Question 25

State the main reasons for maintaining biodiversity

Answer 25

1. Aesthetic
2. Economic
3. Ecological

Question 26

Describe the ecological reasons to maintain biodiversity

Answer 26

Question 27

Describe the aesthetic reasons to maintain biodiversity

Answer 27

1. The variety of plants and animal life, including natural landscapes and ecosystems is valuable to our mental wellbeing (relaxation)
2. Biological life provides inspiration for art
3. Natural environments may speed up recovery from mental and physical injury

Question 28

Describe the economic reasons to maintain biodiversity

Answer 28

Question 29

State the categories and methods of conservation

Answer 29

Question 30

Describe the advantages of ex situ conservation

Answer 30

1. Organisms are protected from predation and poaching
2. Health of individuals can be monitored and medical treatment given
3. Populations can be at different sites, so things affecting one population would affect entire species
4. Genetic diversity of the population can be measured
5. Selective breeding can be used to maintain genetic diversity
6. In vitro techniques can improve reproductive success
7. Population size of endangered animals and plants can be increased
8. Reproductive physiology, ecology and behaviour can be researched
9. Wildlife parks can generate funding for conservation activities
10. Wildlife parks can be used for education

Question 31

Describe the disadvantages of ex situ conservation

Answer 31

1. Captive populations (being smaller) have lower genetic diversity
2. Being in enclosed spaces makes disease transmission and exposure to new pathogens more likely
3. Organisms are not in their natural habitat, so may reduce their chances of survival (conditions don’s suit their adaptations)
4. May be difficult to replicate diet, behaviour and reproduction
5. Animals may find it difficult to survive (finding food, avoiding predation) in the wild after leaving the wildlife park
6. They may not be accepted by wild members of the population

Question 32

Describe conservation carried out by wildlife reserves

Answer 32

1. An area is designated as wildlife reserve, and may contain the following:
2. Controlled grazing
3. Restricting (not preventing) human access to maintain normal animal behaviours
4. Controlling poaching
5. Feeding animals (to increase population sizes)
6. Reintroduction of species (from other habitats, or from ex situ programmes)
7. Removal/control of invasive species
8. Preventing ecological succession (maintaining the habitat)

Question 33

Describe conservation carried out by marine conservation zones

Answer 33

1. A protected marine area, where:
2. Fishing or other human activity is controlled
3. To allow aquatic species populations to be restored

Question 34

Describe conservation carried out by botanic gardens

Answer 34

1. Plant species are actively managed
2. To provide the best conditions and nutrients for their growth
3. Species grown in botanic gardens are protected from risks that may be present in their natural habitat

Question 35

Describe conservation carried out by seed banks

Answer 35

1. Plants have a dormant stage in their lifecycle, seeds which are relatively easy to collect, store and use.
2. Seeds are produced in large numbers, and can be collected without too much impact on the population (doesn’t reduce genetic diversity)
3. Seeds are preserved at low temperature and low humidity
4. This preserves wild varieties and the genetic biodiversity of the species (despite loss of biodiversity due to deforestation and monocultures)
5. Seeds can be tested regularly to check for viability (and if new seeds need to be collected)
6. Large numbers of seeds can be stored in a small space
7. Many plants can reproduce asexually
8. Plants grown ex situ can be
9. Used for building materials
10. Food crops as climate changes
11. Reestablishment of habitats

Question 36

Describe conservation carried out by captive breeding programmes

Answer 36

1. Zoos aim to maintain populations of endangered species
2. They must get these organisms to reproduce in captive breeding programs
3. They must do research on the habitats, mating behaviour and reproductive physiology of the species
4. They must also have genetic information of each individual, to ensure that genetic variation of the species is maintained in the offspring
5. Techniques such as artificial insemination, in-vitro fertilisation and cryogenic storage of embryos and gametes are used
6. International cooperation may be needed to ensure that breeding pairs maintain the genetic diversity of population and species

Question 37

State the types conservation legislation and agreements

Answer 37

1. Convention on international trade in endangered species (CITES)
2. The Rio convention on biological diversity (CBD)
3. The countryside stewardship scheme (CSS)

Question 38

Describe the key elements of CITES

Answer 38

1. Regulates international trade of certain species of wild plants and animals and their products
2. Requires international cooperation to prevent trade in these products
3. If trade is minimised, the wild animals and plants would be exploited less, as there may be less financial incentive to do so
4. And this would prevent their harm or removal from their natural habitats

Question 39

Describe the key elements of CBD

Answer 39

1. The aim is international cooperation to develop sustainable use of natural resources
2. That allows humans to benefit from natural resources while maintaining biodiversity
3. This included agreements to control greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere
4. Preventing fertile land from undergoing soil erosion and desertification
5. International cooperation is needed because many ecosystems cross national boundaries

Question 40

Describe the key elements of CSS

Answer 40

1. Government made payments to local authorities and private landowners
2. To invest in the preservation and restoration of the countryside. Its aims were:
3. Improve the natural beauty and diversity of the countryside
4. Enhance and restore targeted landscapes, wildlife habitats and historical features
5. Improve opportunities for public access