Module 4 Flashcards
Key dimensions of data collection methods
Structure
Quantifiability
Obtrusiveness
Objectivity
Structure in data collection methods
Used to collect identical information from all participants
Quantifiability in data collection methods
Participants must respond to exactly the same questions in exactly the same order.
Obtrusiveness in data collection methods
Data collection methods differ in terms of the degree to which participants are aware of their status as study participants. Collecting data unobtrusively may create ethical problems.
Objectivity in data collection methods
Quantitative researchers typically use more objective approaches and qualitative researchers consider subjectivity a valuable component of data collection.
Unstructured qualitative self-report techniques
Provide the researcher with flexibility in gathering information from research participants. General, open-ended questions are asked in an effort to allow participants to tell their own story.
Types of unstructured self-reports
Completely unstructured Focused interviews Focus group interviews Life histories Critical incident technique
Critical incident technique
Gathers data about people’s behaviours by studying specific incidents relating to the behaviour under investigation.
Structured quantitative self-report techniques
Used when the researcher knows what they need to know and can prepare focused, appropriate questions to obtain the required information. Usually done using an instrument, such as an interview schedule or questionnaire.
Guidelines for asking questions
Make items clear. Avoid double-barreled questions. Respondents must be competent to answer. Respondents must be willing to answer. Questions should be relevant. Short items are best. Avoid biased items and terms.
Likert scale
The most commonly used scaling technique.
Consist of declarative statements that express a viewpoint.
Respondents are asked to choose a number that indicates their agreement or disagreement with the statement.
Vignettes
Short stories or descriptions of situations.
Respondents are asked to relate how they would respond to the situation.
Answers can be open-ended or close-ended and are designed to elicit information about opinions, attitudes, knowledge, and perception.
Strengths of self-report methods
Information can be obtained about past events or future plans.
Can be used to measure psychological characteristics through direct communication.
Limitations of self-report methods
Self-reports may not be accurate; participants may conceal negative characteristics or behaviours.
Responses may be biased or conform to societal expectations.
To collect unstructured observation data, questions are asked about these elements
The physical setting (Where) The participants (Who) Activities (What) Frequency and duration (When) Process (How) Outcomes (Why)
A log
Daily record of events
Field notes
May include the daily log, but are much broader, more analytical, and more interpretive than a simple listing of occurrences.
Strengths of unstructured observational methods
Can yield a rich understanding of human behaviours and social situations.
The researcher gains a more complete understanding of the complexities of the situation than with other methods.
Limitations of unstructured observational methods
Observer bias or emotional involvement may affect objectivity.
Researcher may present a narrow-minded view of the issues.
Depend on the observational and interpersonal skills of the observer.
Strengths of observational methods
Suited for nursing research.
Nurses are skilled in observing people’s behaviours.
Provides more depth and variety of information than any other method.
Limitations of observational methods
People may not behave normally if they know they are being observed.
Observation is vulnerable to observer bias.
in vivo measures
Performed directly within or on living organisms and would include measures such as blood pressure and body temperature.
in vitro measures
Extract biophysiologic material from participants for laboratory analysis, including chemical measures, microbiological measures, and cytologic or histologic measures.
Anthropomorphic measures
Include things like body mass index and waist circumference
Strengths of biophysiological measures
They are relatively accurate and precise.
They are considered to be objective
Instrumentation provides valid results
Limitations of biophysiological measures
The measuring tool may affect the variables it is attempting to measure.
The disadvantages appear to be primarily technical in nature.
Measurement error
Systematic and random error associated with a person’s score on a measure, reflecting factors other than the construct being measured and resulting in an observed score that is different from a hypothetical true value.
Most common factors that may contribute to errors of measurement
Situational contaminants Response-set biases Transitory personal factors Administration variations Item sampling
Situational contaminants
People’s awareness of an observer’s presence may affect their behaviour
Response-set biases
A number of characteristics of the respondents can interfere with the accurate measures of the target attribute
Transitory personal factors
Fatigue, hunger, anxiety, and mood can affect participants motivation to cooperate
Administration variations
Using different methods of data collection from one person to another can affect obtained scores
Item sampling
The sampling of items used to measure a characteristic can sometimes contribute to errors
Reliability
Refers to the accuracy and consistency of a measuring instrument. Three aspects of reliability: stability, internal consistency, and equivalence.
Stability of an instrument
The ability to give consistent results when the same people are tested at different times
Test-retest reliability
Researcher administers the same measure to a sample of people on two occasions and then compares the scores obtained.
Limitations of test-retest reliability
Subjects sometimes remember test items from the first test to the second
Many traits of interest do change over time, independently of the stability of the instrument.
Repeating the question could change the response given.
Repetition could bore subjects, causing them to respond at random.
Internal consistency
Addresses the extent to which all items on an instrument measure the same critical attribute or variable
Equivalence
Refers to the degree to which two or more observers using a single instrument obtain the same results.
Validity
The extent to which the instrument measures what it was intended to measure
Four types of measurement validity
Face validity
Content validity
Criterion-related validity
Construct validity
Face validity
Whether the instrument looks like it is measuring the target construct
Content validity
The extent to which an instrument adequately covers the factors or situations under study
Criterion-related validity
The extent to which a subject’s performance, as measured by the measurement tool and the subject’s actual behaviour are related
Construct validity
The extent to which the test measures a theoretical concept
Credibility
The believability or truthfulness of findings
Techniques qualitative researchers may use to ensure credibility of data
Prolonged engagement and persistent observation Triangulation Peer debriefing and member checks Searching for disconfirming evidence Researcher credibility
Dependability
Refers to the stability of data over time and over conditions
Confirmability
Refers to the objectivity or neutrality of the data and the data interpretation
Transferability
The extent to which qualitative findings have applicability in other settings or groups
Characteristics of a good measurement tool
- should have a uniform set of items and response possibilities
- statements must be clear and concise
- should be only one idea per statement
- negative items and double negatives should be avoided
- types of items should be restricted to a few variations
- items should not provide clues to other items
- instrument should cover a broad area of defined behaviour
- instrument should adequately cover defined behaviour
- instrument should measure what it was intended to measure
Steps to develop a good measurement instrument
- define the concept to be measured
- formulate the items
- assess items for content validity
- develop instructions for respondents and users
- pretest and pilot test the items
- estimate reliability and validity
T/F: Measurement may be defined as the assignment of numbers of characteristics of objects according to specified rules
True
T/F: A good measurement tool results in a quantitative score for a single attribute of the object being measured.
True
T/F: An instrument can be valid even when it is not reliable
False
T/F; Evidence of trustworthiness of qualitative data is routinely provided in research reports
False
Internal consistency
The degree to which the items on an instrument are interrelated and are measuring the same attribute or dimension
Equivalence
The degree to which two or more observers using a single instrument obtain the same results.
Stability
The ability of an instrument to give consistent results when the same people are tested at different times
Sensitivity
The ability of a screening instrument to correctly identify a “case” (correctly diagnose a condition)
The type of validity that employs primarily judgmental procedures, rather than empirical procedures in its assessment, is ____
Content validity
Which of the following is least important in assessing an instrument?
a) face validity
b) criterion-related validity
c) predictive validity
d) concurrent validity
Face validity
Which of the following does not belong?
a) known-groups technique
b) audit trail
c) factor analysis
d) theory-based predictions
Audit trail
If both interviews and observations were used to collect data on a single construct in one study, this would be referred to as _____
Method triangulation
T/F: The more structure an interview has, the more accurate the results.
False
T/F: One of the disadvantages of telephone interviews is the low response rate.
False
T/F: Biophysiologic measures may be used as either independent variables or dependent variables in a study
True
Patient-reported outcome
A health outcome that is measured by directly asking patients for information
Observation
A method of collecting information and measuring constructs by directly watching and recording behaviours and characteristics
Interview
A data collection method in which an interviewer asks questions of a respondent, either face-to-face, by telephone, or over the internet
Focus group interview
An interview with a small group of individuals assembled to answer questions on a given topic