Module 3 Shafer Glossary #5

Question 1

Absolute

Answer 1

Never permissibly broken; violating an absolute moral rule is always wrong.

Question 2

Act consequentialism

Answer 2

The normative ethical theory that says that an act is morally right just because it produces the best actual or expected results.

Question 3

Act utilitarianism

Answer 3

The version of act consequentialism that says that only well- being is intrinsically valuable, and so says that an act is morally right just because it maximizes overall well-being.

Question 4

Ad hominem attack

Answer 4

An attempt to undermine the position of an opponent by criticizing his motives or character.

Question 5

Agnostics

Answer 5

Those who suspend judgment on the question of whether God exists.

Question 6

Altruism

Answer 6

The direct care and concern to improve the well-being of someone other
than yourself.

Question 7

Ambiguous

Answer 7

Having two or more meanings.

Question 8

Amoralists

Answer 8

Those who do not care about living up to the moral views they
sincerely hold.

Question 9

Argument

Answer 9

Any chain of thought in which premises are enlisted in support of
a particular conclusion.

Question 10

Atheism

Answer 10

The belief that God does not exist.

Question 11

Autonomy

Answer 11

The capacity to determine for yourself the principles that you will live
by. It can also refer to your ability to live according to your own plan of life.

Question 12

Begging the question

Answer 12

Arguing on the basis of a reason that will appeal only to
people who already accept the argument’s conclusion.

Question 13

Categorical imperative

Answer 13

A command of reason that requires a person’s obedience
regardless of whether such obedience gets him anything he wants.

Question 14

Categorical reason

Answer 14

A reason to do something that applies to a person regardless of
her desires.

Question 15

Circular reasoning

Answer 15

Defending some belief by a set of other beliefs whose justifica- tion ultimately traces back to the original claim in question.

Question 16

Conceptual truth

Answer 16

A true claim that can be known just by understanding it. Such a claim is true just by virtue of the concepts it contains—that’s why understanding it enables one to know it. An example: bachelors are unmarried men.

Question 17

Consent, tacit

Answer 17

See tacit consent; Agreement that is expressed through silence or inaction.

Question 18

Consequentialism

Answer 18

A family of normative ethical theories that share the idea that the morality of actions, policies, motives, or rules depends on their producing the best actual or expected results. See also: act consequentialism, rule consequentialism, act utilitarianism, rule utilitarianism.

Question 19

Continent

Answer 19

Doing the right thing while suppressing desires that tempt one away from doing one’s duty.

Question 20

Contractarianism

Answer 20

See social contract theory; A view in political philosophy that says that governmental
power is legitimate if and only if it would be accepted by free, equal, and ratio- nal people intent on selecting principles of cooperative living. Also, a view in normative ethical theory that says that actions are morally right if and only if they are permitted by rules that free, equal, and rational people would agree to live by, on the condition that others obey these rules as well.

Question 21

Cultural relativism

Answer 21

The view that an act is morally right just because it is allowed by the guiding ideals of the society in which it is performed, and immoral just because it is forbidden by those ideals.

Question 22

Decision procedure

Answer 22

Any method designed to guide us in successfully deliberating about what to do.

Question 23

Deist

Answer 23

One who believes that God exists, created the universe, and then refrained from becoming involved in human affairs.

Question 24

Desire satisfaction theory

Answer 24

A theory of human well-being that claims that the satisfaction of your actual or informed desires is necessary and sufficient to improve your welfare.

Question 25

Divine Command Theory

Answer 25

The view that an act is morally required just because it is commanded by God, and immoral just because God forbids it.

Question 26

Doctrine of Doing and Allowing (DDA)

Answer 26

The view that it is always morally worse to do harm than to allow that same harm to occur.

Question 27

Doctrine of Double Effect (DDE)

Answer 27

The view that if your goal is worthwhile, you are sometimes permitted to act in ways that foreseeably cause certain harms, though you must never intend to cause those harms.

Question 28

Dogmatism

Answer 28

The trait of being closed-minded and unreasonably confident of the truth of one’s views.

Question 29

Empirical truth

Answer 29

A true claim that can be known only by means of evidence gained through the senses. Understanding what such a claim says is not enough to know whether it is true—you have to check the claim “against the world” to test it. An example: the Empire State Building is 1,453 feet tall.

Question 30

Error theory

Answer 30

The metaethical view that there are no moral features in this world; no moral judgments are true; our sincere moral judgments try, and always fail, to describe the moral features of things; and there is no moral knowledge.

Question 31

Ethical egoism

Answer 31

The normative ethical theory that says that actions are morally right just because they maximize self-interest.

Question 32

Ethical monism

Answer 32

The view that there is only one moral rule that is absolute and fundamental.

Question 33

Ethical objectivism

Answer 33

The view that there is at least one objective moral standard.

Question 34

Ethical particularism

Answer 34

The view that there are neither any absolute nor any prima facie moral rules. According to ethical particularism, no feature of the world is always morally relevant, and none is always morally decisive.

Question 35

Ethical pluralism

Answer 35

The view that there are at least two, and possibly more, fundamental moral rules.

Question 36

Ethical relativism

Answer 36

The view that correct moral standards are relative to individual or cultural commitments. Ethical relativism can take two forms: cultural relativism or ethical subjectivism.

Question 37

Ethical subjectivism

Answer 37

The view that an act is morally right just because (a) I approve of it, or (b) my commitments allow it. An action is wrong just because (a) I disapprove of it, or (b) my commitments forbid it.

Question 38

Eudaimonia

Answer 38

The state of living well; happiness, or flourishing.

Question 39

Evaluative beliefs

Answer 39

Beliefs that evaluate something, and so assess it as good or bad, virtuous or vicious, and so on.

Question 40

Exemplar, moral

Answer 40

See moral exemplar; Someone of outstanding moral character; someone who can serve as a proper moral role model.

Question 41

Exemplary punishment

Answer 41

Punishment designed to make an example of the one who is punished.

Question 42

Expressivism

Answer 42

The version of moral nihilism that denies that there are any moral features in this world; claims that there is nothing for moral judgments to be true of; and analyzes moral judgments as expressions of emotions, orders, or commitments, none of which are the sorts of things that can be true or false.

Question 43

Fact-value distinction

Answer 43

The view that there is a sharp difference between facts and values; value claims are not factual, and so cannot be true.

Question 44

Feminist ethics

Answer 44

A family of theories that emphasize the moral equality of women, and the importance of attending to women’s experience in the development of moral ideas and ideals.

Question 45

Fidelity

Answer 45

Being faithful to one’s word; keeping one’s promises.

Question 46

Fitness

Answer 46

The level of an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce.

Question 47

Free-rider problem

Answer 47

A situation in which people are able to obtain a share of some common good without contributing to it. In such situations, it appears to be rational (if your withholding can go unnoticed) to refrain from contributing, thus enjoying the good at no expense to yourself. The problem is that if enough people act rationally, then there will not be enough resources to produce the relevant good, thus harming everyone.

Question 48

Fundamental

Answer 48

A moral rule is fundamental just in case its justification does not depend on any more general or more basic moral rule.

Question 49

Golden rule

Answer 49

The normative ethical principle that says that your treatment of others is morally acceptable if and only if you would be willing to be treated in exactly the same way.

Question 50

Good will

Answer 50

The ability to reliably determine what your duty is, and a steady commitment to do your duty for its own sake.

Question 51

Hedonism

Answer 51

The view that pleasure is the only thing that is intrinsically valuable, and pain (or unhappiness) is the only thing that is intrinsically bad.

Question 52

Hypothetical imperative

Answer 52

A command of reason that requires a person to take the needed means to getting what she wants.

Question 53

Iconoclasts

Answer 53

People whose views differ radically from the conventional wisdom of their society.

Question 54

Ideal observers

Answer 54

Those (probably imaginary) people who are fully informed, per- fectly rational, and otherwise perfectly suited to determine the content of morality.

Question 55

Imperative, categorical

Answer 55

See categorical imperative; A command of reason that requires a person’s obedience
regardless of whether such obedience gets him anything he wants.

Question 56

Imperative, hypothetical

Answer 56

See hypothetical imperative; A command of reason that requires a person to take the needed means to getting what she wants.

Question 57

Individual relativism

Answer 57

See ethical subjectivism; The view that an act is morally right just because (a)
I approve of it, or (b) my commitments allow it. An action is wrong just because
(a) I disapprove of it, or (b) my commitments forbid it.

Question 58

Infinite regress

Answer 58

An unending series of claims, each of which justifies a previous one and requires justification by a subsequent one. Because the chain never ends, none of the claims within it is ultimately justified.

Question 59

Innate

Answer 59

Congenital. Innate traits are inborn traits, as opposed to traits that are acquired after birth.

Question 60

Instrumental goods

Answer 60

Those things whose value consists in the fact that they help to bring about other good things. Examples include vaccinations, mothballs, and money.

Question 61

Intrinsic values

Answer 61

Those things that are good in and of themselves, considered entirely apart from any good results they may cause. It is controversial which things are intrinsically valuable, but happiness, desire satisfaction, virtue, and knowledge are frequently mentioned candidates.

Question 62

Lex talionis

Answer 62

The law of retaliation, the principle that says that a wrongdoer deserves to be treated just as he treated his victim.

Question 63

Logical validity

Answer 63

The feature of an argument that indicates that its premises logically support its conclusion. Specifically, an argument is logically valid just because its conclusion must be true if its premises were all true. Another way to put this: logically valid arguments are those in which it is impossible for all premises to be true while the conclusion is false.

Question 64

Maxim

Answer 64

A principle of action that you give to yourself. It contains your intended action and the reason you are doing it.

Question 65

Metaethics

Answer 65

The area of ethical theory that asks about the status of normative ethi- cal claims. It asks, for instance, about whether such claims can be true and, if so, whether personal, cultural, or divine opinion makes them true (or none of the above). It also considers issues about how to gain moral knowledge (if we can), and whether moral requirements give us reasons to obey them.

Question 66

Metaphysics

Answer 66

The branch of philosophy that discusses the nature of reality, what exists, and what does not exist.

Question 67

Monism, ethical

Answer 67

See ethical monism; The view that there is only one moral rule that is absolute and fundamental.

Question 68

Moral agent

Answer 68

One who can guide his or her behavior by means of moral reasoning, and so someone who is fit for praise or blame.

Question 69

Moral community

Answer 69

The set of those beings whose interests are intrinsically impor- tant. Membership signifies that you are owed respect, that you have moral rights, that others owe you moral duties for your own sake.

Question 70

Moral exemplar

Answer 70

Someone of outstanding moral character; someone who can serve as a proper moral role model.

Question 71

Moral luck

Answer 71

A case in which the morality of an action or a decision depends on factors outside of our control.

Question 72

Moral naturalism

Answer 72

The view that moral features are natural (i.e., not supernatural) features, whose existence can be confirmed by means of the natural sciences. Moral nihilism: The form of moral skepticism that says that the world contains no moral features, and so there is nothing for moral claims to be true of. Its two
major forms are the error theory and expressivism.

Question 73

Moral skepticism

Answer 73

The view that there are no objective moral standards. Moral skepticism is also sometimes taken to refer to the view that we can have no moral knowledge.

Question 74

Moral worth

Answer 74

The praiseworthy feature of an action that fulfills one’s moral duty.

Question 75

Natural law theory

Answer 75

The normative ethical view that says that actions are right if and only if they are natural, and wrong if and only if they are unnatural; people are good to the extent that they fulfill their true nature, bad insofar as they do not.

Question 76

Nonmaleficence

Answer 76

Not harming others.

Question 77

Norm

Answer 77

A standard of evaluation. Norms tell us how we should or ought to behave. They represent a measure that we are to live up to.

Question 78

Normative ethics

Answer 78

The area of ethical theory focused on identifying which kinds of actions are right and wrong, examining the plausibility of various moral rules, and determining which character traits qualify as virtues and which as vices.

Question 79

Normative features

Answer 79

Those features that tell us how things ought to be, or how we should behave. They rely on norms to do this.

Question 80

Objective moral duties

Answer 80

Those moral requirements that apply to people regardless of their opinions about such duties, and independently of whether fulfilling such duties will satisfy any of their desires.

Question 81

Objective theory of well-being

Answer 81

There are many such theories, all sharing a common feature—they claim that certain things are good for people whether or not they believe them to be and whether or not such things satisfy a person’s actual or informed desires.

Question 82

Occam’s razor

Answer 82

The instruction never to multiply entities beyond necessity. In the context of selecting from among competing theories, it tells us to choose that the- ory that can explain as much as any other, while making the fewest assumptions.

Question 83

Omniscient

Answer 83

All-knowing.

Question 84

Optimific

Answer 84

Producing the best possible results.

Question 85

Paternalism

Answer 85

The policy of treating mature people as if they were children. More specifically, it is a policy of limiting someone’s liberty, against his will, for his own good.

Question 86

Optimific social rule

Answer 86

A rule whose general acceptance within a society would yield better results than any other such rule.

Question 87

Pluralism, ethical

Answer 87

See ethical pluralism; The view that there are at least two, and possibly more,
fundamental moral rules.

Question 88

Premise

Answer 88

Any reason that is used within an argument to support a conclusion.

Question 89

Prima facie duty

Answer 89

A permanent, excellent but nonabsolute reason to do (or refrain from) a certain type of action.

Question 90

Principle of humanity

Answer 90

Kant’s thesis that one must always treat a human being (oneself included) as an end, and never as a mere means.

Question 91

Principle of universalizability

Answer 91

Kant’s thesis that an act is morally acceptable if, and only if, its maxim is universalizable.

Question 92

Principle of utility

Answer 92

The ultimate utilitarian moral standard, which says that an action is morally right if and only if it does more to improve overall well-being than any other action you could have performed in the circumstances.

Question 93

Prisoner’s dilemma

Answer 93

A situation in which everyone involved would be better off by reducing his or her pursuit of self-interest.

Question 94

Proceduralism

Answer 94

The view that says that we must follow a certain procedure in order to determine which actions are morally right, or which moral claims are true.

Question 95

Psychological egoism

Answer 95

The view that all human actions are motivated by self-interest, and that altruism is impossible.

Question 96

Rule consequentialism

Answer 96

The normative ethical theory that says that actions are morally right just because they would be required by an optimific social rule.

Question 97

Rule utilitarianism

Answer 97

The version of rule consequentialism that says that well-being is the only thing of intrinsic value.

Question 98

Self-evident

Answer 98

A claim is self-evident just in case (1) it is true and (2) adequately understanding it is enough to make you justified in believing it. The best candidates for self-evident claims are conceptual truths.

Question 99

Self-regarding actions

Answer 99

Actions that affect only oneself.

Question 100

Slippery slope argument

Answer 100

A utilitarian line of reasoning that advises against certain social innovations by predicting that allowing them will have very bad results whose badness will go unnoticed in the future.

Question 101

Social contract theory

Answer 101

A view in political philosophy that says that governmental power is legitimate if and only if it would be accepted by free, equal, and ratio- nal people intent on selecting principles of cooperative living. Also, a view in normative ethical theory that says that actions are morally right if and only if they are permitted by rules that free, equal, and rational people would agree to live by, on the condition that others obey these rules as well.

Question 102

Soundness

Answer 102

A special feature of some arguments. Sound arguments are ones that (1) are logically valid, and (2) contain only true premises. This guarantees the truth of their conclusions.

Question 103

Standard of rightness

Answer 103

A rule that gives conditions that are both necessary and suf- ficient for determining whether actions (or other things) are morally right.

Question 104

State of nature

Answer 104

A situation in which there is no central authority with the exclusive power to enforce its will on others.

Question 105

Strictly conscientious action

Answer 105

Action motivated by the thought or the desire to do one’s duty for its own sake, rather than from any ulterior motive.

Question 106

Supererogation

Answer 106

Praiseworthy actions that are above and beyond the call of duty. Tacit consent: Agreement that is expressed through silence or inaction.

Question 107

Theist

Answer 107

One who believes that God exists.

Question 108

Universalizability

Answer 108

The feature of a maxim that indicates that every rational person can consistently act on it. Here is the three-part test for a maxim’s universaliz- ability: (1) carefully frame the maxim; (2) imagine a world in which everyone shares and acts on that maxim; (3) determine whether the goal within the maxim can be achieved in such a world. If so, the maxim is universalizable. If not, it isn’t.

Question 109

Value theory

Answer 109

The area of ethics concerned with identifying what is valuable in its own right, and explaining the nature of well-being.

Question 110

Veil of ignorance

Answer 110

An imaginary device that removes all knowledge of one’s social, economic, and religious positions; one’s personality traits; and other distin- guishing features. It is designed to ensure that the important choices of social contractors are made fairly.

Question 111

Vicarious punishment

Answer 111

The deliberate punishment of innocent victims, designed to deter third parties.

Question 112

Vicious

Answer 112

Possessed of many vices. The opposite of virtuous.

Question 113

Virtue ethics

Answer 113

A normative ethical theory that says that an action is morally right just because it would be done by a virtuous person acting in character.

Question 114

Validity

Answer 114

See logic validity; The feature of an argument that indicates that its premises logically support its conclusion. Specifically, an argument is logically valid just because its conclusion must be true if its premises were all true. Another way to put this: logically valid arguments are those in which it is impossible for all premises to be true while the conclusion is false.

Question 115

Punishment, exemplary

Answer 115

See exemplary punishment; Punishment designed to make an example of the one who
is punished.

Question 116

Punishment, vicarious

Answer 116

See vicarious punishment; The deliberate punishment of innocent victims, designed to deter third parties.

Question 117

Relativism, cultural

Answer 117

See cultural relativism; The view that an act is morally right just because it is allowed
by the guiding ideals of the society in which it is performed, and immoral just
because it is forbidden by those ideals.

Question 118

Relativism, individual

Answer 118

See ethical subjectivism; The view that an act is morally right just because (a)
I approve of it, or (b) my commitments allow it. An action is wrong just because
(a) I disapprove of it, or (b) my commitments forbid it.