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553 - Networked Systems > Module 3: Introduction to Physical, Data and Network Layer > Flashcards

Module 3: Introduction to Physical, Data and Network Layer Flashcards

1
Q

Switch

A

mechanism to connect links to form a larger network
multi-input, multi-output which transfers packets from an input to one or more outputs

physical layer: electrical signals
link layer: frames
network layer: packets (routers)

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2
Q

physical layer: repeaters

A

distance limitation
- electrical signal becomes weaker as it travels
- imposes a limit on the length of a LAN

repeaters join LANs together
- analog electronic device
- continuously monitors electrical signals on each LAN
- transmits an amplified copy

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3
Q

physical layer: hubs

A

multi-port repeater
joins multiple devices electrically
- do not necessarily amplify the signal
- broadcast traffic that arrives on every other port
very similar to repeaters
- also operates at the physical layer

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4
Q

limitations of repeaters and hubs

A

one large collision domain
cannot support multiple LAN technologies

ethernet: utilization > 30% is considered heavy due to collisions

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5
Q

what is a solution to the distance problem with switches and routers?

A

link layer bridges
- connects two or more LANs at the link layer

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6
Q

link layer switches

A

typically connects individual computers
- a switch is essentially the same thing as a bridge
- … though typically used to connect hosts, not LANs
like bridges, support concurrent communication
- e.g. host A can talk to C while B talks to D

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7
Q

what is the main idea of bridges/switches?

A

main idea is traffic isolation

bridge/switch breaks network into LAN segments
bridge/switch filters packets
- frame only forwarded to the necessary segments
- segments become separate collision domains

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8
Q

what are the advantages of bridges/switches over hubs/repeaters?

A
  1. only forwards frames as needed
    - filters frames to avoid unnecessary load on segments
    - sends frames only to segments that need to see them
    - separate collision domains allow longer distances
  2. joins segments using different technologies
    - e.g. ethernet - made possible with buffer
    - not complete heterogeneity
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9
Q

what are the disadvantages of bridges/switches compared to hubs/repeaters?

A

delay in forwarding frames
- store and forward: bridge/switch must receive and parse the frame and perform a lookup to decide where to forward
- solution: cut-through switching
–> look up destination address in header, determine output port, forward frame
–> no error detection

higher cost!
- more complicated (intelligence, memory buffers, high performance) devices that cost more money

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10
Q

why are switches so expensive?

A

high performance chips
memory requirements
intelligence capability makes it complex to build

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11
Q

bridge/switch forwarding table

A
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12
Q

protocol
self learning: building the table

A

self-learning: without intervention from network admins
when a frame arrives:
- inspect the source MAC address
- associate the address with the incoming interface
- store the mapping in the switch table
- use a time-to-live field to eventually forget the mapping (in case host moves to another network)

when frame arrives with unfamiliar destination
- forward frame out all of the interfaces
- except for the one where the frame arrived
- hopefully, this case won’t happen very often

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13
Q

flooding can lead to loops

A

flooding can lead to forwarding loops
- if the network contains a cycle of bridges
- either accidentally or by design for higher reliability

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14
Q

what is the solution for avoiding cycles?

A

spanning trees

ensure the topology has no loops
- avoid using some of the links when flooding
- … to avoid forming a loop

spanning tree
- sub-graph that covers all vertices but contains no cycles
- links not in the spanning tree do not forward frames

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15
Q

spanning tree algorithm

A
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16
Q

steps in spanning tree algorithm

A
17
Q

robust spanning tree algorithm

A

we must react to failures

18
Q

can we deploy bridges/switches to the scale of the internet?

A

this is a layer 2 technology

-size of bridge forwarding tables grows with the number of hosts
-broadcast traffic flows freely over the entire extended LAN
-little control over forwarding –> send along spanning tree –> too much flooding
-spanning tree topology: hotspots, single point of failure, poor load balancing
-limited in heterogeneity: ethernets to ethernets, ethernets not to ATM

19
Q

Physical LAN / virtual LAN

A

physical
all ppl in adjacent officers were put on the same LAN
independent of whether they belonged together or not

virtual LAN
single extended LAN partitioned into several separate LANs
independent logical networks (VLANs) within the same physical network
configured in software rather than hardware

20
Q

advantages of VLANs

A

group users based on organized structure rather than physical layout
rewire the building in software
isolating traffic on separate LANs by organization and improves security and performance

21
Q

example VLAN

A
22
Q

configuring VLANs

A
23
Q

using the graphic, explain how VLANs help avoid flooding the network.

A
24
Q

Network Layer

A
25
Q

Internetwork

A
26
Q

Internet Protocol

A
27
Q

IP Header

A
28
Q

fragmentation issues

A

different networks may have different frame limits (MTUs)

iPv4: fragment on demand and reassemble at destination

iPv6: network returns error message so host can learn limit

29
Q

example fragmentation issues

A

reassemble at destination (H8)

30
Q

fragmentation and resassembly

A

this can lead to problems along the way
we could lose one of the fragments

31
Q

how does the IP header support fragmentation?

A

fragmentation fields

32
Q

explain the fragmenting of a package

A
33
Q

what are some fragment considerations?

A
34
Q

other considerations for fragmenting

A

causes inefficient use of resources within the network

higher level protocols must re-xmit entire datagram (on lossy network links, hard for packet to survive)

efficient reassembly is hard

35
Q

how does IPv6 do fragments better?

A
36
Q

how does IPv4 approach fragmentation?

A

fragment on demand and then reassemble

37
Q

why is the fragmentation approach of IPv6 better?

A

And you wouldn’t do this if you just have one packet to send. But suppose you have set up a large flow and you want to send a lot of data, then using this PMTU approach, you can probe the network on the hop by hop basis, figure out what the MTU is, and use that right from the beginning. And that gets around all the complexity of reassembly, what if you lose a fragment, and so on. Consequently, this is a much better approach compared to IPv4.

38
Q

virtual machines vs. containers

A

553 - Networked Systems (14 decks)

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