MODULE #3

Question 1

The most common situations that HNs deal with (4)

Answer 1

1. trapped perpetrators,
2. domestic disputes,
3. suicidal individuals
4. individuals suffering from mental illness

Question 2

role of the hostage negotiator (4)

Answer 2

1. to engage the person in crisis in a dialogue and encourage them to come out.
2. Try to bring the crisis to a peaceful resolution without the loss of life;
3. Stall the offender in order to buy time. This will allow the police time to develop a plan and deploy resources;
4. Gather information to help the lead investigator understand as much as possible about the offender and the hostage situation

Question 3

Strengths of Hostage Negotiators (6)

Answer 3

1. Be excellent communicators with the ability to listen
2. Accept that they will be placed under a great deal of stress at times
3. Have the ability to work as part of a team
4. Be prepared to follow instructions and understand that the goal is to save lives, not beat the hostage taker in a battle of wills
5. Possess resilience, patience, emotional maturity, professional knowledge, self-confidence and empathy
6. Be flexible

Question 4

a key issue for the HN and their team

Answer 4

The context in which the hostage situation takes place

Question 5

In a hostage negotiation situation it is the first thing that needs to be considered

Answer 5

whether the situation is planned or unplanned

Question 6

planned HN (2)

Answer 6

1. situation is one which the hostage taker(s) set up the incident.
2. The HT knows ahead of time that they will be communicating with an HN and the HT attempts to trade the hostage(s) for specific demands that they make

Question 7

Unplanned (2)

Answer 7

1. the HT makes a spontaneous decision to take hostages and does not expect to be speaking with a hostage negotiator.
2. This can occur when a plan goes off the rails or when the police get involved unexpectedly.

Question 8

thin slicing (2)

Answer 8

1. Process of information giveaway
2. During the first communication, both the HN and HT will give information away to each other.

Question 9

Researchers suggest that the HN should: (3)

Answer 9

1. demonstrate their credibility through a combination of expertise, knowledge and goodwill.
2. The first time they interact with the HT, they should attempt to use statements that demonstrate these 3 traits.
3. For example, the HN might say, “Hello, my name is Sam. I am with the police. Is everyone OK in there? I am here to listen to you.”

Question 10

most hostage negotiations begin with:

Answer 10

an attempt to open up a two-way communication which will assist in understanding points of view, concerns and opinions.

Question 11

Harvey Schlossburg and Frank Boltz developed three key principles

Answer 11

(l) the hostage taker must be contained and negotiation implemented;
(2) the hostage taker’s motivation and personality must be understood; and
(3) the incident must be slowed clown so that time can work for the negotiators. Negotiation is the safest approach with the goal of no loss of life.

Question 12

Crises (3)

Answer 12

1. are circumstances perceived as catastrophic.
2. Individuals are faced with serious consequences and feel overwhelmed and unable to cope because they do not have the necessary resources, including past problem-solving tools.
3. Some of these individuals may barricade themselves and threaten suicide or homicide. They feel helpless and hopeless.

Question 13

Crisis intervention (2)

Answer 13

1. takes place in highly emotional situations such as interviews with victims immediately after the crime has occurred, or with first-time offenders facing probation or an active prison sentence.
2. The subjects are in crisis because they are facing situations in which they probably do not have pre-existing coping mechanisms to deal with the situations.

Question 14

Crisis negotiation (3)

Answer 14

1. encompasses any situation that police confront in which a subject or subjects involve the police in a life-threatening incident.
2. The threatened lives may be those of the subject, hostages, bystanders, or the police.
3. the interaction between negotiators and subjects (hostage takers if they are holding hostages) in a tense environment.

Question 15

the goal of the negotiation

Answer 15

is settlement, paying attention to meeting legitimate interests of both sides, but keeping the community interests and the safety of any hostages-in the forefront.

Question 16

barricaded situation

Answer 16

any incident in which one or more armed or potentially armed persons fortify themselves within a protected location (building, house, vehicle, bridge) with or without hostages and refuse to surrender to the police.

Question 17

Hostages (4)

Answer 17

1. are people who are held against their will as a means to secure specific terms by their captors.
2. These hostages are not in the situation voluntarily, but rather, because their lives are threatened
3. Although the hostages are human, they are usually seen by their captors as little more than commodities with value.
4. It is important to personalize the victims, but also not to increase their value and consequently the hostage taker’s power.

Question 18

Crisis intervention’s goal

Answer 18

to return the individuals to their baseline level of functioning
before their crises.

Question 19

Trapped offenders (5)

Answer 19

1. are subjects caught by police during commission of crimes.
2. Their only motive is to escape.
3. They do not intend to be apprehended.
4. They will take any action to avoid prison time.
5. Consequently, they are unpredictable, volatile, and dangerous.

Question 20

Many of the mentally ill individuals have a treatment history, and often it is possible, almost mandatory, that: (2)

Answer 20

1. the negotiator contact the individual’s therapist.
2. information supplied by the therapist might provide the negotiator a better understanding of the issues and a better chance of negotiating a peaceful surrender.

Question 21

For those individuals who are mentally ill, the negotiators should:

Answer 21

work hard to establish rapport rather than attempt to address their delusional problems because the subjects will not be able to interact rationally

Question 22

terrorism (3)

Answer 22

1. the use or threat of violence to achieve social, political, or religious aims.
2. Acts of terrorism are carefully planned.
3. The terrorists’ religious and/or political beliefs may be strong enough that they are willing or even anxious to kill and die for a cause.

Question 23

Intervention is most effective if:

Answer 23

it is implemented as close to the onset of the crisis as possible.

Question 24

the goal of negotiation is to:

Answer 24

move the hostage taker off a coercive stance to a cooperative stance.

Question 25

coercive stance

Answer 25

1. the subject will reject any need to develop a relationship with negotiators.
2. The subject uses his or her power over the hostage to attempt to force demands.

Question 26

triadic dynamics (3)

Answer 26

1. communicates threats to the hostages;
2. the hostages make pleas to the offender and the negotiators
3. the offender hopes these pleas will help reinforce direct messages he or she is sending to the negotiators.

Question 27

the triadic dynamics may not apply if:

Answer 27

the offender is mentally or emotionally ill

Question 28

Fuselier, VanZandt, and Lanceley ( 1991) group antecedent events that influence the subject into the three areas

Answer 28

1. financial,
2. family, and
3. social pressures

Question 29

Most barricaded situations are not planned

Answer 29

They begin as a crime that suddenly goes wrong-a fight between significant others that escalates when the police arrive or one disputant tries to leave, or an emotionally unstable person who becomes delusional.

Question 30

Time is critical, and the duration of the incident is of particular importance. (3)

Answer 30

1. Reducing tension is an important early objective for negotiators
2. the first 3 to 4 hours are most dangerous, if nobody is killed by then, there is a good chance that everybody will remain safe.
3. the first half hour is the most critical because the offender is most likely to be unclear of his or her plans.

Question 31

McMains and Mullis (2006) note that time increases basic human needs (2)

Answer 31

1. the negotiator can be placed in a position to fill those needs.
2. As the offender gets hungry, the negotiator can manipulate the appeasing of his or her appetite to gain trust and to reduce anxiety.

Question 32

Stockholm Syndrome (4)

Answer 32

1. hostages become emotionally attached to the hostage taker and feared the police
2. after a number of days of captivity, hostages develop positive feelings toward the hostage taker and negative feelings toward the authorities who are attempting to resolve situations.
3. can be considered a potential survival tool for the victims. Developing a relationship with a hostage taker, who is unknown to them, will help personalize the victims.
4. The offenders might come to view them as humans with feelings, families, and personal lives.

Question 33

information needed for the first step of crisis intervention (5)

Answer 33

1. Why is the individual in crisis now?
2. What are the precipitating events that led up to the crisis?
3. Has the individual attempted to deal with the crisis in the past?
4. How successful was the coping?
5. What resources are available? What resources are needed?

Question 34

If the individual is confronted by the police or is unknown to the criminal justice personnel (2)

Answer 34

1. the interviewer must collect information in much the same way as with the beginning of most interviews.
2. The interviewer must develop rapport and a relationship with the subject-interviewee and identify and reflect the content and feelings of the subject’s problems

Question 35

Therapeutic communication (3)

Answer 35

1. especially to be used when subjects have mental or emotional
   disorders
2. Heavy emphasis is placed on listening, paraphrasing, reflection
   of feelings, clarification, empathy, and summarizing
3. includes the importance of providing some accurate information when relevant

Question 36

Important communication continues with the creation and implementation of a plan. (2)

Answer 36

1. It is important to keep the subject involved so the solutions,
   planning, and implementation become a partnership.
2. The more the offender believes he or she is contributing to working toward a solution, the more likely he or she will be willing to buy into that solution.

Question 37

Hammer and Rogan ( 1996) developed a model called:

Answer 37

1. the communication approach that combines techniques from the basic bargaining negotiation approach built on social exchange theory and the expressive negotiation approach that primarily focuses on the emotional level of the subject.

Question 38

bargaining negotiation approach (4)

Answer 38

1. Based on the social exchange theory
2. the identification of demands and clarification of terms for exchange of resources.
3. According to the social exchange theory, negotiations involve
   rewards and costs for each party; the negotiation action involves the exchange of some object or commodity in return for other objects or commodities.
4. Overall effective negotiation is the result of rational discourse between the contending parties.

Question 39

expressive negotiation approach

Answer 39

focuses on the impact of emotion and relationship

Question 40

What three principles is the expressive negotiation approach based on?

Answer 40

1. if there are hostages, they rarely function as a bargaining chip to achieve specific outcomes but rather as expressive acts of the offender to demonstrate his or her ability to control others.
2. the interest of both the offender and negotiator is to prevent the situation from escalating to injury or death.
3. the high emotional level reached during a crisis situation can negatively impact a negotiated outcome. Emotion is such a central element that the likely response is the instinctive “fight or flight” rather than problem solving. Relationship and trust building are viewed as critical factors in resolving crisis incidents.

Question 41

Hammer and Rogan modified the bargaining and expressive negotiation approaches mentioned above and developed the:

Answer 41

communication negotiation approach

Question 42

communication negotiation approach

Answer 42

the negotiation process is dynamic and dependent on the interaction between the negotiators and the subjects

Question 43

Hammer further modified the communication negotiation approach to the

Answer 43

S.A.F.E. model

Question 44

What are the four important elements described in the S.A.F.E. model that impact the escalation and/or de-escalation of the situation toward or away from increased violence and potential injury?

Answer 44

1. substantive demands,
2. attunement,
3. face, and
4. emotions.

Question 45

Substantive demands

Answer 45

instrumental demands made by the offender (I want a cigarette), and the counter-expectations made by the negotiator (we need to know that the hostages are safe)

Question 46

Attunement (7)

Answer 46

1. the development of the relationship between the negotiators
   and the subject.
2. Power and trust are core elements of the relationship between the offender and those in power such as the police.
3. Power concerns dominance and submission.
4. The offender desires dominance and resists submission.
5. Trust revolves around the degree to which the subject and negotiators are willing to accept the idea that a future act by the other will not be detrimental.
6. The negotiator will have to help the subject find benefit in submitting.
7. The subject’s emotions must be identified and managed.

Question 47

Face (2)

Answer 47

1. is the offender’s perceptions of his or her own attributes, but also
   often has a social identity.
2. Saving face is a principal component of the identity concern

Question 48

There are six types of face message behaviors. Four are the offender’s messages, and two are the negotiators

Answer 48

I. The offender defends own face with self-directed messages designed to protect his or her self-image: “It’s not my fault.”
2. The offender attacks own face with self-directed messages against his or her self-image: “I have nothing to live for.”
3. The offender attempts to restore own face: I’m not as crazy as you think.”
4. The offender attacks the negotiator: “You’re jerking me around.”
5. The negotiator attempts to restore the offender’s face: “You have lots of people who care about you.”
6. The negotiator defends, and at the same time, protects the offender’s face from future attack or loss: “I think you are really a strong person for how you’ve handled this situation so far.”

Question 49

negotiator must continue to be positive and patient (2)

Answer 49

1. The offender will be concerned with his or her safety, so the negotiator must be able to help the subject work through the consequences of his or her actions.
2. Usually, perpetrators believe their actions are more serious, and the consequences much worse than they really are, so the negotiator can explain and thus minimize them to some extent

Question 50

Positive Criteria Measurements (6)

Answer 50

1. Positive progress in a negotiation is indicated by less violent content in the offender conversing with the negotiator
2. the offender talking more with the negotiator;
3. the offender talking at a lower rate, pitch, or volume;
4. the increased willingness on the part of the offender to discuss personal issues.
5. Positive signs toward the release of hostages include negotiations getting past a deadline set by the offender without incident,
6. a decrease in the number of threats made by the offender, and
7. the absence of violence.

Question 51

Negative indicators (5)

Answer 51

1. include the disclosure of information that the offender has recently killed a significant other, especially a child;
2. the offender demands that he or she be killed by officers;
3. the offender refuses to negotiate;
4. the offender sets a deadline for his or her own death; and
5. the offender has a past history of violence.

Question 52

tactical and negotiator supervisors should be able to answer
the following: (3)

Answer 52

l. Is the action necessary at this moment?
2. If the answer is yes, what has changed to make tactical entry necessary?
3. Is the entry acceptable? Can we document the justification so it will stand up to media and public inspection tomorrow?

Question 53

Negotiators in the UK have developed a model of active listening that includes 3 components

Answer 53

Focused listening
Responsive listening
Communication encouragers

Question 54

Focused Listening (8)

Answer 54

1. HNs place themselves in a position where they can hear what the HT is communicating to them.
2. They should create an environment that is conducive to clear communication. Before speaking with the HT, the HN should gather as much information as possible about the hostage situation.
3. A background search may be conducted on the HT to try and determine the motivation for this attack.
4. They may gather intelligence about the environment the hostages are being held in and determine if a face-to-face conversation is possible.
5. If the hostage situation is similar to previous ones, can the HN use any strategies that have been implemented before?
6. Is there anything that is out of control of the police, such as a media message from a government source that might influence the HT in a positive or negative way?
7. Essentially any preparations that will allow the HN to enter the first conversation with an edge in the negotiations should be undertaken.
8. Then, when the HN opens up a conversation with the HT, they are ready to hear what he or she has to say.

Question 55

Responsive Listening

Answer 55

involves allowing the speaker to say what they want without being interrupted

Question 56

Responsive listening includes these specific communication skills: (3)

Answer 56

1. Minimal Encouragement: The HN might make a small encouraging sound or use a phrase such as, “Ok, go on” to encourage the HT to keep speaking.
2. Echoing/mirroring language: The HN would repeat the last word or phrase that the HT uttered. This demonstrates that the HN has been listening carefully and is following what the HT is saying.
3. Energy word or phrase: While talking, the speaker might place extra inflection on a particular word or phrase. The listener then repeats that word or phrase back to the speaker.

Question 57

goal of responsive listening (3)

Answer 57

1. is to identify the passion, energy and commitment in the language or statement being made.
2. The HN may want to know a specific piece of information, but they need to be careful to allow the HT to set the rhythm of the conversation.
3. By allowing the HT to guide the conversation, the HN has to be patient and come back to a specific question later.

Question 58

Communication Encouragers

Answer 58

are specific techniques that the HN can use to keep the HT talking and to convey the message that they are being heard by the HN

Question 59

Two types of communication encouragers that an HN can use are:

Answer 59

summarizing and paraphrasing

Question 60

Summarizing

Answer 60

With summarizing, the HN repeats back what the HT has said, actually using some of the same words or phrases the HT used.

Question 61

6 Principles of Persuasion

Answer 61

1. Liking
2. Authority
3. Reciprocity
4. Commitment/Consistency
5. Social Validation/Proof
6. Scarcity

Question 62

Liking - Several factors can increase a person’s liking for another. These include: (4)

Answer 62

1. we are more likely to be persuaded by an individual that we like than one that we do not like
2. Physical attractiveness: we attribute positive traits like being talented, kind, honest and intelligent to attractive people, even though research suggests that attractive people are no more likely to possess these traits than less attractive people are. Thus, we like attractive people more than unattractive people.
3. Similarity: people like others who are similar to them more than those who are different.
4. Compliments: people like others who make positive comments to them, even though they may realize that the flattery is false.

Question 63

Authority

Answer 63

Generally speaking, people are influenced by authority figures and we are more likely to comply with a request made by someone with authority over us than to a request made by someone with little to no authority over us.

Question 64

Stanley Milgram was an expert on obedience and he stated that people are more likely to obey authority when they: (4)

Answer 64

1. take the word of an expert rather than think for themselves
2. are socialized to obey, having been brought up by parents to obey authority figures like doctors and teachers
3. perceive that the authority figure is credible or an expert
4. pay attention to superficial cues that signal authority (e.g., wearing a uniform, possessing a title)

Question 65

Reciprocity (5)

Answer 65

1. This rule states that we should try to repay in kind what another person has provided for us.
2. If someone does a favour for us or gives us something, we feel an uncomfortable imbalance and want to restore balance by reciprocating with a favour or gift of our own.
3. In hostage situations, the HN can use the rule of reciprocity to try and influence the HT’s behavior.
4. If the HN arranges for small concessions, such as the delivery of food for the terrorists and hostages, the HT may feel pressure to respond with a concession, such as releasing a hostage.
5. This “quid pro quo” relationship can foster feelings of liking and cooperation.

Question 66

Commitment/Consistency (6)

Answer 66

1. People want to appear consistent in their words, beliefs and actions.
2. If someone publicly commits to a course of action, they don’t want to back down and change their mind.
3. This would make them seem untrustworthy or inconsistent.
4. This applies to hostage situations because once a terrorist group has publicly made demands, they would “lose face” if they changed their mind and didn’t follow through with the threats they made.
5. It is important that the HN is aware that this principle can influence the HT’s behaviour.
6. If the HT feels like their demands will not be met, they may start to escalate the situation and begin killing hostages.

Question 67

Social Validation/Proof (2)

Answer 67

1. occurs when we look to other people to determine how we should personally behave.
2. We are social animals and we look to other people for cues to how to behave.

Question 68

There are two conditions under which social proof is especially influential:

Answer 68

1. Uncertainty: When a person is unsure of their surroundings or the situation is unclear, they will pay more attention to how others are acting
2. Similarity: People are more likely to be influenced by the behaviour of others who are similar to them

Question 69

Scarcity (4)

Answer 69

1. opportunities seem more valuable to us when they are less available.
2. So, if an item is rare or becoming rare, it is more valuable.
3. Scarcity is a powerful tool because people have a strong emotional reaction to the thought of losing something.
4. To build up pressure and use scarcity to their advantage, many groups will set a deadline for their demands to be met.

Question 70

psychologists perform a range of important functions on a law enforcement crisis management team (4)

Answer 70

1. crisis teams that include a mental health consultant are rated as more effective than those that do not have a mental health professional
2. can provide valuable services in both training and on-scene support that can enhance the overall effectiveness of the team
3. communications training as the most valuable skills utilized by negotiators. It is here that psychologists can make some of their most valuable contributions
4. can aid the crisis team by providing practical guidance as to the nature of any diagnoses or personality patterns observed, and their implications for approaches to negotiation strategy

Question 71

three especially dangerous periods during a hostage crisis

Answer 71

1. the initial 15-45 minutes when confusion and panic are likely to be greatest.
2. during the surrender of HTs, when hair-trigger emotions, ambivalence, and lack of coordination among HTs and crisis team members can cause an otherwise successful resolution to go bad.
3. Finally, tactical assault (“going in”) to rescue the hostages carries the highest casualty rate

Question 72

tactical assault (“going in”) to rescue the hostages carries the highest casualty rate, probably for two interrelated reasons

Answer 72

1. the very fact that tactical intervention is necessary indicates that all reasonable attempts to resolve the crisis by negotiation have failed, and that violence against the hostages has already taken place or is imminent.
2. Second, if a firefight ensues, the resulting panic and confusion may result in hostages being inadvertently injured or killed.

Question 73

High-Risk Factors In Hostage Crises (5)

Answer 73

1. One especially dangerous risk factor is whether the hostage is known to and/or deliberately selected by the HT.
2. a HT who purposefully selects his hostage is usually on a mission to make a statement or “teach them a lesson.”
3. The goal often involves at least frightening or intimidating the intended hostages, if not actually injuring or killing them.
4. where the HT intends to commit a murder-suicide
5. the incident has escalated to a hostage and barricade situation, and the stakes are higher.
6. A diagnosed major mental disorder is another general risk factor for violence.
7. Anything that indicates that the HT has already decided not to live through the crisis is a bad sign, inasmuch as a person with no hope or regard for his own life will typically have little regard for the lives of others.
8. Test-firing or threat-firing of a weapon, or other deliberately provocative action may be a sign of impulsivity, poor judgment, or a tendency toward especially violent behavior.
9. Such display behavior only serves to heighten the unpredictability and dangerous of the situation as a whole. It may also represent a suicide-by-cop gesture.

Question 74

Hostage Crisis Response: Basic Protocol (2)

Answer 74

1. Secure the perimeter
2. Provide for scene control

Question 75

Secure the perimeter (3)

Answer 75

1. The first priority is to isolate and contain the HT and to secure the perimeter
2. the perimeter should be large enough to allow freedom of movement of the tactical and negotiating teams, and small enough to be kept under observation and control by the authorities.
3. More than one perimeter (e.g., inner and outer) may be necessary.

Question 76

Provide for scene control (2)

Answer 76

1. marshalling medical services, controlling local traffic, dealing with the media, and keeping the surrounding community sufficiently informed to protect their safety.
2. some form of communication needs to be established with the HT - the sooner you begin a dialog with the HT, the less time he has to stew and consider drastic options.

Question 77

Throughout the communication process, you should be: (2)

Answer 77

1. attempting to gather information about the HT’s background, criminal history, mental health and/or substance abuse history, family structure, employment status, and so on.
2. intelligence-gathering also includes basic tactical information such as the physical layout of the hostage scene, surrounding community, and access to support services.

Question 78

authentic chameleon

Answer 78

coloring your style of communication and interaction to best fit the subject, but with the overarching goal being a sincere and honest commitment to everyone’s welfare

Question 79

always read your subjects as accurately as possible and customize your negotiating approach using one or more combinations of the following communication tactics and roles. (8)

Answer 79

1. Reasonable problem-solver
2. Buddy-fellow traveler
3. Dumb-but-trying – “Detective Columbo.”
4. Firm, accepting-directing.
5. Nonjudgmental and helpful
6. Compassionate but competent.
7. Reinforce appropriate behavior
8. authentic chameleon - flexibility

Question 80

Verbal Strategies to Avoid (4)

Answer 80

1. Arguments.
2. power plays
3. moralizing
4. Diagnosing

Question 81

Emotion Labeling (4)

Answer 81

1. helps the subject clarify what he’s feeling.
2. It contributes to a state of calmness by reducing internal confusion.
3. Sometimes, just giving an intense feeling a name shows that the emotion is understood and that the subject is less out of control than he may think.
4. Also, by focusing on the HT’s emotions, you allow a break from discussing demands and issues, and at the same time let the HT know you’re interested in how he feels about things, not just in what he’s currently complaining about or what he and you may want from each other.

Question 82

What 6 things does Paraphrasing accomplish?

Answer 82

1. basically rephrasing the subject’s statement in your own words.
2. it reinforces empathy and rapport
3. actually clarifies what the HT is saying
4. it encourages the subject to slow down and listen, and may deflect any hostile action against hostages.
5. promotes a verbal give-and-take that does not automatically put the subject on the defensive.
6. just hearing one’s own thoughts spoken out loud by someone else can provide clarification and a new perspective.

Question 83

Active Listening Skills

Answer 83

1. emotion labeling
2. paraphrasing
3. Reflecting/Mirroring
4. Minimal Encouragers
5. Silence and Pauses
6. “I” Messages
7. Open-Ended Questions.

Question 84

Reflecting/mirroring (3)

Answer 84

1. the negotiator repeats the last word or phrase, or the key word or phrase, of the subject’s statement in the form of a question, thereby soliciting more input without actually asking for it.
2. It also allows the negotiator to buy time if he cannot immediately think of an appropriate emotional label or paraphrase, while still encouraging the HT to think about what he’s just said.
3. Early in the negotiation, it allows information to be gleaned in a
   nonconfrontational way, and is a generally good initial rapport-builder.

Question 85

Minimal Encouragers (4)

Answer 85

1. little conversational speech fillers we all use to indicate that we’re paying attention to someone during a conversation.
2. consist of short utterances and questions that let the HT know that the negotiator is listening, but don’t interfere with the HT’s narrative flow.
3. Indeed, the purpose is to encourage the HT to keep talking.
4. Examples include: “Oh?” “I see.” “Yeah.” “Uh-huh.” “When?” “And?” “Really?” “You do?”
   “ She did?”

Question 86

Silences & pauses (5)

Answer 86

1. Aside from just buying time, silence can be used strategically.
2. in a relatively active conversation, your silence encourages the subject to fill it the gaps, which keeps him talking.
3. Following a statement by silence is also a way of emphasizing a point you’ve just made.
4. best used in combination with other techniques, and may be particularly effective when used in conjunction with minimal encouragers.
5. Be careful about too much silence, however, because you don’t want the HT to think he’s being ignored or was forgotten about

Question 87

“I” Messages (3)

Answer 87

1. People under extreme stress often become suspicious and defensive, and any statements that are too directive may sound like an insult or attack.
2. keep potentially accusatory-sounding “you’s” out of the conversation
3. I-statements clue the subject in on what effect he’s having on the negotiator’s perception, while at the same time allowing for some subjectivity and personalization of the negotiator.

Question 88

Open-Ended Questions (4)

Answer 88

1. the negotiator asks questions that cannot be answered with a simple yes-or-no.
2. encourages the subject to say more without the negotiator
   actually directing the conversation.
3. This technique may be used in combination with other active listening techniques, such as minimal encouragers, reflecting/mirroring, and silence.
4. As with interview techniques, open-ended questions can be followed or combined with closed-ended queries.

Question 89

A fundamental guiding principle of hostage negotiations is to

Answer 89

make the HT work for everything he gets by extracting a
concession in return, no matter how small, for each demand
satisfied.

Question 90

Demands: Negotiating Strategies (7)

Answer 90

1. The challenge in hostage crises, then, is to maintain your bargaining position without unduly agitating the HT and triggering a violent confrontation.
2. can use demands as a profiling and intelligence gathering tool: beyond basic physical needs, what the HT asks for in a crisis can yield clues to his personality and priorities.
3. don’t ask the HT if there are any demands
4. don’t offer anything not explicitly asked for,
5. don’t deliver more than absolutely necessary to fulfill the request
6. never say “no” to a demand, but not saying no is not equivalent to saying yes.
7. deflect, postpone, and modify

Question 91

When negotiating for release of multiple hostages: (3)

Answer 91

1. start with the most vulnerable or least desirable, from the HT’s
   standpoint.
2. many HTs will relinquish hostages that they perceive as being “too much trouble” to keep around, such as sick or injured victims, children, or overly hysterical hostages, while holding on to the more healthy and manageable ones.
3. let the HT make the first offer, that is, how many hostages he’s willing to release.

Question 92

Negotiable demands

Answer 92

include food, drinks, cigarettes, and environmental controls, such as heat, air conditioning, electricity, plumbing, blankets, and so on.

Question 93

Nonnegotiable demands

Answer 93

include illegal drugs, weapons, release of friends or relatives in prison, or exchange of hostages.

Question 94

“Gray area” demands

Answer 94

may depend on the special circumstances and judgment of the negotiating team include alcohol, money, media access, transportation, or freedom.

Question 95

Demands, Deadlines, and Time (6)

Answer 95

1. although deadline demands are relatively common, very few deaths have actually occurred as the direct result of a deadline not being met, especially in more common robbery or domestic dispute hostage crises.
2. on’t set deadlines yourself.
3. If the HT makes a deadline, log it, but don’t mention it again to the HT if he doesn’t bring it up.
4. The goal is to ignore the deadline and let it pass by, keeping the subject engaged in conversation.
5. If there has been no conversation with the HT for a while, initiate contact prior to the deadline and keep him engaged.
6. Use the passage of time to expend adrenalin and let fatigue set it, but beware of total exhaustion which may lead to heightened irritability and impulsive action.

Question 96

Basic elements of crisis intervention for dealing with
demands in hostage scenarios include the following: (8)

Answer 96

1. Define the problem
2. Brainstorm solutions
3. Eliminate unacceptable solutions
4. Choose the best possible solution
5. Plan the implementation
6. Implement the plan
7. Assess the outcome
8. Repeat and modify as necessary

Question 97

Define the problem

Answer 97

Question: What do we want to do here?
Answer: Get everybody out safely.

Question 98

Brainstorm solutions (3)

Answer 98

1. What are some of the ways that we can achieve the goal of resolving this crisis without injury?
2. Allow the HT to make suggestions and amend and supplement them with your own.
3. Give the HT as much input into the problem-solving process as he is willing to provide, since people are more likely to stick with plans, the greater their initial degree of buy-in.

Question 99

Eliminate unacceptable solutions

Answer 99

Some of the HT’s suggestions and demands may be clearly unreasonable

Question 100

Choose the best possible solution

Answer 100

Try to narrow it down to one or two points that can be agreed upon for the present.

Question 101

Plan the implementation. (2)

Answer 101

1. Whatever the choice of alternatives, make sure everybody understands exactly who’s going to do what and when.
2. Under states of extreme emotional tension, it only takes one small glitch to foul everything up.

Question 102

Implement the plan

Answer 102

If possible, walk the HT through the steps that have been laid out in your mutual planning by keeping phone communication open at all times

Question 103

Assess the outcome (2)

Answer 103

1. Whatever the action and its outcome, big or small - assess and log how smoothly the deal went down, as this will provide a pretty good indicator of how subsequent negotiations will play out.
2. If problems are identified, modify the approach accordingly.

Question 104

Assess the outcome (2)

Answer 104

1. Whatever the action and its outcome, big or small - assess and log how smoothly the deal went down, as this will provide a pretty good indicator of how subsequent negotiations will play out.
2. If problems are identified, modify the approach accordingly.

Question 105

Repeat and modify as necessary

Answer 105

Always be flexible. If the approach needs to be modified in light of new circumstances, do so.

Question 106

Schizophrenic Hostage Takers (4)

Answer 106

1. In negotiating with a schizophrenic HT, remember that
   the predominant underlying emotion is likely to be some combination of fear and anger, so the use of calming techniques
   may seem like the obvious choice. However, they tend to be less responsive to normal emotional cues, so don’t expect a close correspondence between your active listening interventions and the subject’s response.
2. Often the basis for rapport in these situations comes from the
   subject’s need to explain himself and his motives, so by all means let him talk, interjecting only when his speech tone and content reflect an extreme escalation that might lead to violence.
3. neither agree nor disagree with the delusional ideas or motives
4. A better strategy is to acknowledge the content of the delusion and try to ally yourself with the subject’s perspective and perception of the situation, while keeping the focus on present reality.

Question 107

Paranoid Hostage Takers (7)

Answer 107

1. forget about changing his mind or reasoning him out of his belief.
2. exquisitely sensitive to attempts to fool or manipulate them and are often quite perceptive in this regard, so stay away from tricks and strategems as much as possible.
3. Straightforwardness and calmness are the keys to a successful negotiation with this subject.
4. Open negotiations in a logical, factual, respectful, and unemotional manner
5. Ask for the subject’s view of the situation and request clarification if necessary.
6. If the subject gets angry, keep your cool and request further clarification of the subject’s complaint.
7. Allow productive ventilation, but beware of the subject self escalating himself into a rage.

Question 108

A particularly sensitive issue with paranoid HTs (3)

Answer 108

1. regards the use of rapport.
2. For the most part, any attempt to “get close” to a paranoid subject is likely to be interpreted as an attempt to manipulate him, so negotiators need to tread a thin line between being too cold and standoffish versus trying to be too inclusive and engaging.
3. Keep things clear and direct, and focus the negotiation on solving concrete problems.

Question 109

Depressed Hostage Takers (9)

Answer 109

1. depressed subjects may be despondent and suicidal and therefore especially dangerous precisely because they have “nothing to lose” by taking hostages to the grave with them.
2. Without overpatronizing, the stance of a nurturant parental model or supportive authority figure may appeal to a depressed subject because it gives the impression of structure and control.
3. Don’t verbally “rush” the subject; rather, begin the conversation at a slow pace and gradually pick up the tempo over time.
4. Begin with open-ended questions and allow for long pauses before the answers come. If this goes nowhere, ask simple, direct, closed-ended questions.
5. Use reflection of feelings as necessary.
6. If the subject begins to dwell on a painful, unjust past or a bleak, purposeless future, try to keep the time perspective grounded in the present.
7. Avoid deep religious or philosophical issues, if possible, but if the subject seems intent on discussing these, let him speak and use gentle verbal direction to keep things focused on the
   here-and-now.
8. If the subject brings up suicide, address it forthrightly. If he doesn’t explicitly mention it, but nevertheless seems suicidal, gently inquire.
9. Ask what he’s thinking of doing. Usually, attempts to “talk him out of it” are of little avail, but find out what’s important to him, and try to give him a glimpse of a better future.

Question 110

Avoidant-Dependent Hostage Takers (4)

Answer 110

1. try to provide a firm, supportive presence; in essence becoming
   the new, if temporary, parental figure.
2. It is very important for the negotiator to help the insecure avoidant-dependent HT find a resolution to the crisis that doesn’t leave him feeling like he’s failed again, which may impel him to do something even more desperate.
3. Let the initial ideas for peaceful resolution come from the HT,
   expand and refine them with your own good suggestions, and as much as possible, make it seem like everything positive that happens is the subject’s idea, with your own mentor- like praise and support. 4. It’s also a good idea to keep friends and relatives away from the scene so that the subject is not tempted to prove himself by “going out like a man.”

Question 111

Antisocial/Psychopathic Hostage Takers (5)

Answer 111

1. the antisocial HT’s very coldbloodedness can actually facilitate
   negotiations if you can convince him that sparing lives is the easiest way for him to achieve his objectives.
2. Appeal to his self-interest: releasing at least some of the hostages leaves you with less baggage to deal with; a good-will gesture may result in a lighter penalty; don’t give the SWAT guys an excuse to move in and take you out; and so on.
3. Promise only what you can deliver.
4. Tone-wise, a reasonable, problem-solving approach probably works best – involved, but unemotional.
5. To keep the HT’s mind off the hostages, keep him busy with you, the negotiator. Be as straightforward as possible, and realize that virtually nothing he says can be taken at face value.

Question 112

Borderline Hostage-Takers (10)

Answer 112

1. In hostage situations, such subjects may make no demands at all – they just want their victim to suffer.
2. Or they may make unreasonable demands
3. use the relationship factor to your advantage.
4. Careful application of active listening techniques will help build rapport and diffuse toxic emotions.
5. Try to show the subject that you’re on his or her side by providing
   soothing reassurance, empathy, support, and structure.
6. Interestingly, many borderlines are so starved for nurturant human connection, that they may be unusually susceptible to such rapport-building approaches.
7. The downside is that their feelings can turn on a dime once they believe you’ve crossed them or let them down.
8. carefully take your cue from the subject
9. encourage talking, but be cautious not to let venting escalate into loss of control.
10. Be especially careful about involving family members or other third parties, who may inflame the situation.

Question 113

The Surrender Ritual: realize that a HT typically has four possible
options:

Answer 113

(1) surrender,
(2) escape,
(3) suicide, or
(4) killing of hostages

Question 114

The Surrender Ritual (8)

Answer 114

1. anything the negotiating team can do to make this easier for the HT will work in favor of saving lives.
2. As with all such guidelines, each negotiator must adapt this system to his or her particular situation and type of HT.
3. Trying to manipulate or browbeat a
   HT into capitulation may have the opposite effect because few people want to give up, believing it to be a sign of weakness.
4. Rather, a successful resolution will usually involve allowing the HT to come out on his own with as much dignity preserved as possible.
5. everyone on the negotiating and tactical teams needs to be on the same page, and any plan must be understood, agreed to, and followed by all.
6. Work out how the HT will come out, how the arrest will be made, and what will happen next.
7. need to establish with the team what are the limits of acceptable and unacceptable terms, and what are the practical constraints of the situation.
8. When dealing with the HT, avoid the use of words like “surrender,” “give up,” or other terms that connote weakness and loss of face.

Question 115

To begin the discussion of coming out of the HT: (6)

Answer 115

1. emphasize to the HT what he has to gain by this action at the present time.
2. Be realistic but optimistic.
3. Minimize any damage done so far
4. The basic strategy is to emphasize what bad things have not happened and the subject’s role in preventing further harm.
5. Find out what assurances are needed by the HT and whether or not the team can accommodate them
6. In planning for a successful resolution, let the subject set the pace; if he is agreeing to come out at all, this is not the time to rush things.

Question 116

Signs Hostage Situation is Progressing Well (5)

Answer 116

1. HT talks more to HN
2. HT is willing to discuss personal issues with the HN
3. The HT uses less violent language and fewer threats
4. The HT speaks more slowly, less loudly and at a lower pitch
5. A deadline passes without a violent incident

Question 117

Signs Hostage Situation is Progressing Poorly (5)

Answer 117

1. HT reveals they have recently killed a significant other
2. The HT demands to be killed by the police
3. The HT refuses to negotiate
4. he HT sets a deadline for their own death
5. The HT has a history of violence

Question 118

risk assessment (2)

Answer 118

1. involves assessing the likelihood that a given individual will commit violence in the future.
2. experts view risk in terms of a continuum or range. A person can be slightly dangerous, moderately dangerous or extremely dangerous.

Question 119

There are a number of key questions that a psychologist or law enforcement agent should consider when assessing risk. (5)

Answer 119

1. What is the nature of the violence that may occur? For example, is the individual likely to commit physical violence, sexual violence, or both?
2. What is the likely severity or seriousness of the violence? For example, will the individual shoot or stab their spouse? Are they planning to murder someone?
3. What is the frequency of the violence or how often might the violence occur? Is it likely to be an ongoing threat (e.g., an abusive husband who will frequently hit his wife) or is it more likely to be a one-time threat (e.g., a planned bombing)?
4. How imminent is the violence? Is it likely to occur very soon or in the more distant future?
5. What is the likelihood or probability that the violence will occur? Is the chance that the individual will engage in future violence low, moderate or high?

Question 120

risk prediction (2)

Answer 120

1. describes the probability that an individual will commit future criminal or violent acts.
2. focus of this component is on identifying the risk factors that are related to this likelihood of future violence

Question 121

risk management (2)

Answer 121

1. describes the development of interventions to manage or reduce the likelihood of future violence.
2. The focus of this component is on identifying what treatment(s) might reduce the individual’s level of risk or what conditions need to be implemented to manage the individual’s risk.

Question 122

2 components to be considered when it comes to risk assessment

Answer 122

1. risk prediction
2. risk management

Question 123

In risk assessment, the focus on probability reflects two considerations.

Answer 123

1. it highlights the idea that ·probabilities may change across time.
2. it recognizes that risk level reflects an interaction will among a person’s characteristics, background, and possible future situations that affect whether the person engages in violent behaviour

Question 124

When are risk assessments conducted?

Answer 124

routinely conducted in civil and criminal contexts

Question 125

Civil contexts

Answer 125

refer to the private rights of individuals and the legal proceedings connected with such rights

Question 126

Criminal contexts

Answer 126

refer to situations in which an individual has been charged with
a crime.

Question 127

civil contexts requiring risk assessment (5)

Answer 127

1. civil commitment
2. child protection
3. immigration laws
4. School and labour regulations
5. Duty to warn

Question 128

civil commitment (2)

Answer 128

1. requires an individual be hospitalized involuntarily if he or she
   to has a mental illness and poses a danger to him- or herself or others.
2. In Canada, only a psychiatrist can civilly commit someone·to a hospital.

Question 129

Assessment of risk in child protection

Answer 129

1. involves the laws that are in place to protect children from abuse.

Question 130

Immigration laws

Answer 130

prohibit the admission of individuals into Canada if there are reasonable grounds for believing they will engage in acts of violence or if they pose a risk to the social, cultural, or economic functioning of Canadian society.

Question 131

School and labour regulations

Answer 131

also include provisions to prevent any kind of act that would endanger others.

Question 132

duty to wam

Answer 132

1. Mental health professionals are expected consider the likelihood that their patients to will act in a violent manner and to intervene to prevent such behaviour.

Question 133

criminal settings

Answer 133

The assessment of risk occurs at nearly every major decision point in the criminal justice and forensic psychiatric systems, including pretrial, sentencing, and release

Question 134

An important issue in risk assessment in criminal settings (2)

Answer 134

1. Is the disclosure of information about potential risk.
2. This disclosure must be considered in light of the solicitor
   client privilege that is fundamental to criminal proceedings

Question 135

Predicting future events will result in one of four possible outcomes

Answer 135

1. true positive
2. true negative
3. false positive
4. false negative

Question 136

true positive

Answer 136

represents a correct prediction and occurs when a person who is predicted to be violent engages in violence.

Question 137

true negative

Answer 137

a correct prediction and occurs when a person who is predicted
not to be violent does not act violently

Question 138

false positive

Answer 138

represents an incorrect prediction and occurs when a person is predicted to be violent but is not.

Question 139

false negative

Answer 139

is also an incorrect prediction and occurs when a person is predicted
to be nonviolent but acts violently.

Question 140

base rate

Answer 140

Represents the percentage of people within a given population who commit a criminal or violent act

Question 141

A problem with attempting to predict violence is:

Answer 141

determining base rates.

Question 142

The Base Rate Problem (3)

Answer 142

1. It is difficult to make accurate predictions when the base rates are too high or too low.
2. can vary dramatically depending on the group being studied, what is being predicted, and the length of the follow-up period over which the individual is monitored.
3. general rule is that it is easier to predict frequent events than infrequent events.

Question 143

It is difficult to make accurate predictions when the base rates are too high or too low.

Answer 143

A problem that emerges when attempting to predict events that have a low base rate is that many false positives will occur.

Question 144

Baxstrom and Dixon studies key findings (4)

Answer 144

1. These cases and similar ones call into question the ability of mental health professionals to make accurate predictions of violence.
2. the base rate for violence was relatively low
3. the false positive rate was very high
4. These findings indicate that in the past many mentally disordered forensic patients were needlessly kept in restrictive institutions based on erroneous judgments of violence risk.

Question 145

Monahan and Steadman ( 1994) identified three main weaknesses of research on the prediction of violence

Answer 145

1. limited number of risk factors being studied. Violent behaviour is due a complex interaction between individual dispositions and situational factors.
   - In other words, people engage in violence for many different reasons.
   - Many risk factors are likely involved, including the person’s background, social situation, and biological and psychological features.
   - Many studies have focused on only a limited number of risk factors.
2. How the criterion variable (the variable you are trying to measure) is measured.
   - Researchers have often used official criminal records as their criterion measure.
   - Many crimes may never be reported to police.
   - Thus, many false positives may be undiscovered true positives.
   - use of official records underestimates violence.
   - When official records are combined with interviews with patients or offenders and with collateral reports (information from people or agencies who know the patient or offender), the rate of violence increases
3. How the criterion variable is defined
   - researchers will classify their participants as having either engaged in violence or not
   - coding needs to be expanded
   - likely that some risk factors will be associated with certain forms of violence

Question 146

Illusory correlation

Answer 146

Belief that a correlation exists between two events that in reality are either not correlated or correlated to a much lesser degree

Question 147

Clinicians may make several types of decision errors. (3)

Answer 147

1. Clinicians include traits they intuitively believe to be important or assume to be associated with the risk but that actually are not
2. Clinicians also tend to ignore base rates of violence
3. tend to be overconfident in their judgments

Question 148

What are the existing methods of risk assessment? (3)

Answer 148

1. Unstructured clinical judgment
2. mechanical prediction
3. structured professional judgment

Question 149

Unstructured clinical judgment (3)

Answer 149

1. is characterized by a substantial amount of professional discretion and lack of guidelines.
2. There are no predefined rules about what risk factors should be considered, what sources of information should be used, or how the risk factors should be combined make a decision about risk.
3. Thus, risk factors considered to vary across clinicians and vary across cases

Question 150

Actuarial prediction (mechanical prediction) (4)

Answer 150

1. involves predefined rules about what risk factors to consider, how information should be collected, and how information should be combined to make a risk decision
2. risk factors do not vary as a function of the clinician and the same risk factors are considered for each case.
3. the risk factors used have been selected and combined based on their empirical or statistical association with a specific outcome
4. a study has been done in which a number of risk factors have been measured, a sample of offenders have been followed for a specific period, and only those risk factors that were actually related to reoffending in this sample are selected

Question 151

A debate in the literature exists concerning the comparative accuracy of unstructured clinical versus actuarial prediction (2)

Answer 151

1. actuarial prediction was equal to or better than unstructured clinical judgment in all cases.
2. sum, the weight of the evidence clearly favours actuarial assessments of risk

Question 152

A criticism of many actuarial assessments has been

Answer 152

their sole reliance on static risk factors, which do not permit measuring changes in risk over time or provide information relevant
for intervention

Question 153

structured professional judgment (3)

Answer 153

1. Decisions are guided by a predetermined list of risk factors that have been selected from the research and professional literature.
2. Judgment of risk level is based on the evaluator’s professional judgment
3. the term professional is used to acknowledge that it is not only clinicians who make evaluations of risk but a diverse group, including law enforcement officers, probation officers, and social workers)

Question 154

Skeem and Monahan (2011) described violence-risk-assessment approaches as having four components. Not all risk approaches include all these components.

Answer 154

1. Identify risk factors
2. Measure risk factors
3. Combine risk factors
4. Produce risk estimate

Question 155

habitual offenders (3)

Answer 155

1. certain high-risk repeat offenders
2. convicted of three or more offences and were “consistently leading a criminal life.
3. designated habitual offenders could be sentenced to an indeterminate time in prison

Question 156

dangerous offender (4)

Answer 156

1. Anybody who has been convicted of a serious personal injury offence, but has not yet been sentenced, who constitutes a “danger to the life, safety or mental/physical well-being” of others
2. Both violent offences that warrant a minimum 10 year sentence and sexual offences are eligible for the DO designation.
3. People given the DO designation can be detained for an indeterminate amount of time and have to wait 7 years for parole (rather than the standard 3 years).
4. The current version of this act stipulates that one psychiatrist has to testify to the offender’s threat to others.

Question 157

Long-Term Offenders (LTO) (2)

Answer 157

1. was developed due to concerns that many sexual and violent offenders were not labeled as DOs, but still posed a significant risk to the public and warranted closer supervision than the average offender.
2. designation is used most frequently when the offender is likely to commit sexual violence in the future.

Question 158

Offenders who meet the following criteria may be designated as LTOs: (4)

Answer 158

1. They are convicted of a serious personal injury offence
2. The current offence warrants a prison sentence of 2 years or more
3. There is a substantial risk that the offender will reoffend, causing serious harm in the future
4. There is a reasonable possibility that the risk can eventually be controlled in the community

Question 159

availability heuristic (2)

Answer 159

1. an efficient but fallible rule of thumb that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory.
2. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume they are commonplace.

Question 160

How does the availability heuristic relate to the issue of accurately predicting future violent behaviour?

Answer 160

if assessors are involved in the criminal justice system and deal with violent offenders regularly, they may overestimate the risk of violence in the general prison population because they can easily bring to mind examples of violent offenders.

Question 161

risk factors were divided into two main types

Answer 161

Static & dynamic

Question 161

risk factors were divided into two main types

Answer 161

Static & dynamic

Question 162

Types of Risk Factors

Answer 162

Static
dynamic
historical
dispositional

Question 163

risk factor

Answer 163

is a measurable feature of an individual that predicts the behaviour of interest, such as violence.

Question 164

Dynamic risk factors (3)

Answer 164

1. fluctuate over time and are amenable to change.
2. An antisocial attitude is an example of a dynamic risk factor, since it is possible that treatment could modify this variable.
3. other examples: lack of self-awareness, impulsivity and feelings of anger or hostility toward others

Question 165

Static risk factors (3)

Answer 165

1. do not fluctuate over time and are not changed by treatment
2. Age at first arrest is an example of a static risk factor, since no amount of time or treatment will change this risk factor
3. other examples: age of first arrest, childhood maltreatment, past violent behaviour

Question 166

Historical risk factors

Answer 166

1. Risk factors that refer to events that have been experienced in the past (e.g., age at first arrest).
2. Also known as static risk factors

Question 167

Dispositional risk factors

Answer 167

Risk factors that reflect the individual’s traits, tendencies, or styles (e.g., negative attitudes)

Question 168

Clinical risk factors

Answer 168

Types and symptoms of mental disorders
(e.g., substance abuse)

Question 169

Contextual risk factors

Answer 169

1. factors that refer to aspects of the current environment (e.g., access
   to victims or weapons).
2. Sometimes called situational risk factors

Question 170

Demographics (3)

Answer 170

1. identified young age as a risk factor for violence
2. The younger the person is at the time of his or her first offence, the greater the likelihood that the person will engage in criminal behaviour and violence.
3. Offenders who are arrested prior to age 14 tend to have more serious and more extensive criminal careers than those who are first arrested after age 14

Question 171

Main improvement of methods for assessing risk (3)

Answer 171

1. Increasing the number of risk factors used to predict future violence.
2. Looking at more than just official records to assess whether the offender truly committed a violent act.
3. Moving from a dichotomous judgement (committed violence vs. did not) to a rating of violence that includes things like severity of violence and motivation for violence.

Question 172

Protective factors (3)

Answer 172

1. factors that mitigate or reduce the likelihood of antisocial acts or violence in high-risk offenders.
2. These are variables that compensate for a person’s risk factors and constitute strengths or resiliencies against adverse outcomes.
3. Some examples of protective factors are prosocial involvement, strong social supports, positive social orientation (e.g., school, work) and strong attachments to prosocial others and intelligence

Question 173

Henggeler, Schoenwald, Borduin, Rowland, and Cunningham (1998) described four kinds of support:

Answer 173

(1) instrumental, “to provide the necessities of life”;
(2) emotional, “to give strength to”;
(3) appraisal, “to give aid or courage to”;
(4) infonnadon, “by providing new facts.”

Question 174

Risk-Need-Responsivity (RNR) model

Answer 174

was developed to identify and target risk factors associated with re-offending

Question 175

risk principle

Answer 175

the greatest amount of treatment resources should be focused on the highest risk offenders.

Question 176

need principle

Answer 176

suggests that interventions should be targeted at specific dynamic factors

Question 177

responsivity principle

Answer 177

treatment should be tailored to match the specific traits and needs of offenders.

Question 178

If a psychologist wanted to determine whether an offender they were assessing would be likely to commit violence right after he was released, what is he or she paying attention to?

Answer 178

How imminent the violence is

Question 179

Offenders who have been designated dangerous offenders can be detained for a(n) ______________ amount of time and have to wait _________ years for parole.

Answer 179

indeterminate; 7 years

Question 180

What was one of the main findings from the Baxstrom and Dixon studies?

Answer 180

Mental health professionals predicted that far more mentally ill offenders would commit violence than actually did

Question 181

the most subjective approach to assessing risk

Answer 181

Unstructured clinical judgement

Question 182

Age of first arrest is an example of a _______________; impulsivity is an example of ____________.

Answer 182

static risk factor; dynamic risk factor

Question 183

What did the meta-analytic study conducted on sexual offenders and recidivism rates find?

Answer 183

Treatment programs based on the RNR model showed the largest reduction in both sexual and general recidivism

Question 184

Risk-assessment instruments

Answer 184

1. Violence Risk Scale
2. Level of Service/Case Management Inventory
3. Static-99

Question 185

Violence Risk Scale (4)

Answer 185

1. is a structured profesc~ (LS/CMI) professional judgment tool designed to provide information on an offender’s risk to reoffend while at the same time providing treatment targets to reduce the offender’s risk.
2. consists of 26 items: It consists 6 static risk factors and 20 dynamic risk factors.
3. The static risk factors are:
   - Age of first violent conviction
   - Number of juvenile convictions
   - Violence throughout life span
   - Stability of family upbringing
   - Prior release failures/escapes
   - Current age
4. examples of the 20 risk factors are:
   - emotional regulation/control
   - insight into violence
   - impulsivity
   - work ethic

Question 186

Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (2)

Answer 186

1. is a comprehensive risk/need-assessment and treatment-planning system. It consists of 11 sections that are scored based on a semi-structured interview and review of the offender’s file information.
2. Contains items designed to measure the “central eight” risk factors that have been reliably associated with recidivism
   - Pro criminal attitudes/orientation
   - Antisocial personality pattern
   - criminal history
   - family/marital relationship problems
   - Lack of leisure/recreation activities
   - antisocial companions
   - Alcohol/drug problem
   - education/employment problems

Question 187

Static-99 (4)

Answer 187

1. a 10-item actuarial scale designed to predict sexual recidivism.
2. All items on this scale are static in nature.
3. Scores on the Static-99 can range from 0 to 12, with scores being associated with four-risk categories: low, moderate-low, moderate-high, and high
4. Items include the following:
   - Young age at time of release
   - Ever lived with intimate partner
   - Any prior nonsexual violent convictions
   - Any index non-sexual violent convictions
   - Number of prior sex offences
   - Number of prior sentences
   - any male victims
   - any unrelated victims
   - any stranger victims
   - any noncontact sex offences

Question 188

Desistance

Answer 188

The process of ceasing to engage in criminal behaviour

Question 189

risk factor paradigm

Answer 189

identify the key risk factors for offending and tool prevention methods designed to counteract them

Question 190

Four Steps of the Risk Factor Approach

Answer 190

1. • Public health surveillance (i.e., developing and refining data systems for ongoing analysis and disseminating data).
2. Risk group identification (i.e., identifying individuals at greatest risk of disease or injury and the places, times, and other circumstances associated with increased risk).
3. Risk factor exploration (i.e., analytically exploring the potentially causative risk factors).
4. Program implementation and evaluation (i.e., designing, implementing, and evaluating preventive measures based on an understanding of the population at risk and the community’s identified risk factors).

Question 191

Rutter (1987) believes that protective factors offset the onset of delinquency via four main processes:

Answer 191

1. reducing risk,
2. reducing negative chain reactions,
3. establishing self-esteem and self-efficacy, and
4. opening up opportunities.