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Anat 241 > Module 2a - Muscles > Flashcards

Module 2a - Muscles Flashcards

1
Q

What are tissues?

A

specialized cells embedded in an extracellular matrix

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2
Q

What are the four tissue types?

A

Epithelial, Nervous, Connective and Muscle

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3
Q

Why is the Extra cellular matrix important?

A

Maintains differentiated state of cells and to maintain normal overall development

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4
Q

Where is epithelial tissue found?

A

Lines the organs and cavities within the body and covers the external body (Epidermis).

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5
Q

What does epithelial tissue do?

A

Forms a protective barrier and has absorptive and secretive functions

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6
Q

How is epithelial tissue classified?

A

based on layers, shapes, surface specializations and function, has polarity (apical and basement membrane) and has a basement membrane as a scaffold and anchor to underlying support tissue.

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7
Q

What are other properties of epithelial tissue?

A

Avascular (nutrients through diffusion) and is regenerative (stem cells allow regeneration).

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8
Q

What are the classified cell types of epithelial tissue?

A

Simple, Cuboidal, Stratified, Pseudostratified, Stratified squamous, Keratinized stratified squamous, Stratified columnar, Stratified cuboidal and transitional.

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9
Q

What are surface specialisations in epithelial tissue?

A

Microvilli and cilia

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10
Q

Epithelial cells are connected via what?

A

cellular junctions

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11
Q

What are occluding cellular junctions?

A

Tight junctions (Zonula occludens)

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12
Q

What are anchoring cellular junctions?

A

Zonula adherrens, Desmosomes and hemidesmosomes

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13
Q

What are communicating cellular junctions?

A

Gap junctions

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14
Q

What are the locations of the cellular junction types?

A

Tight junctions-tightly bound junction at apical region, Zonula adherrens-strengthens attachment at to neighbouring cells at apical region, Gap Junctions-communication between neighbouring cells, Desmosomes-firmly anchors neighbouring cells together, Hemidesmosomes-anchors cells to basement membrane.

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15
Q

What are properties of tight junctions?

A

Control the paracellular highway and contain transcellular proteins (Occludin and Claudin)

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16
Q

What is Claudin?

A

Different Claudins produce different permeabilities. In the kidneys only specific regions are permeable to magnesium because of Claudin-16. Claudin-1 controls the waterproof qualities of the skin

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17
Q

What are the properties of Zonula Adherens?

A

Links the cytoskeletons of adjacent cells, contains actin filaments and main transmembrane proteins (E-cadherins).

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18
Q

Why are E-cadherins important?

A

Loss of E-cadherins are linked to cancer

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19
Q

What are the properties of Desmosomes?

A

Links the cytoskeletons of neighbouring cells, connect to cytokeratin (intermediate filaments) and main transmembrane proteins (cadherins such as desmoglein)

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20
Q

What is pemphigus vulgaris

A

Is an Autoimmune disease, antibodies attack desmoglein 3, cells fall apart and skin sloughs off.

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21
Q

What are the properties of hemidesmosomes?

A

modified desmosomes, basal surface of cell, anchor to the basement membrane and bind to cytokeratin’s. The transmembrane protein used is integrins

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22
Q

What are the properties of gap junctions?

A

communicating junctions, Main transmembrane proteins are connexins which form channels called connexons that can open and close allowing small ions and molecules through

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23
Q

What are properties of microvilli?

A

Fingerlike projections of the plasma membrane, are 0.5-1 nm, provides increased surface area for absorption, core of parallel actin bundles,

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24
Q

What are properties of cilia?

A

are motile and beat in rhythm to move substance across surface of the epithelium (e.g. respiratory tract and sperm), up to 10nm long and has a cytoskeleton composed of microtubules.

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25
What are the characteristics of the basement membrane?
binds epithelial cell to connective tissue, formed and maintained to both epithelial and connective tissue, has a sheet like arrangement of ECM proteins, Forms a barrier but allows nutrients to pass to epithelia and regulates permeability, controls growth and differentiation.
26
Under Electron microscopy how many layers does the basement membrane have?
Lamina Lucida, Lamina Densa (Basal Lamina) and Lamina Fibroreticularis
27
What are basal folding's?
Folds which increase surface area of the basement membrane
28
Cells dies and are replaces with cells that are what?
The right type, in the correct place and in the correct numbers.
29
cells in epithelial tissues have high what?
Regenerative capacity
30
What are causative factors of cell loss?
Friction and environmental changes
31
What three general properties do all stem cells have?
Capable of dividing and renewing themselves for long periods, unspecialised and give rise to specialised tissue types.
32
What two stem cell types are there?
Adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells.
33
what are properties of adult stem cells?
undifferentiated cell found amongst differentiated cell in organ/tissue, can renew itself and can differentiate itself to major cell types in the organ/tissue (multipotent), primary roles in living tissue is repair and maintenance
34
What are the properties of embryonic stem cells?
Can differentiate into all cell types (Pluripotent)
35
What did Shinya Yamanaka's work with stem cells uncover?
By changing four key genes adult stem cells can be transformed into induced embryonic stem cells.
36
Where are skin stem cells found?
found in the bulge under the sebaceous gland but can translocate to basal layer and epidermis and turnover every two months
37
Where are stem cells found in the intestines?
found in deep crypts and give rise to absorptive, goblet, paneth and enteroendocrine cells and turnover every few days.
38
What is hyperplasia?
increase in the size of a tissue/organ due to increased cell reproduction rate
39
What is hypertrophy?
Increase of tissue/organ due to increase in cell size.
40
What is tissue/cell atrophy?
A decrease in size
41
What is metaplasia?
Reversible transition of one cell type to another
42
What is Dysplasia?
Presence of unusual cell types (is reversible because it is caused by a stimulus)
43
What is neoplasia?
New, uncontrolled growth of cells
44
Environmental changes alter cell growth in what three ways?
Cell size, division and differentiation
45
What can cause cell growth changes?
concentration of growth factors/expression of growth factor receptors = altered cell growth
46
Hyperplasia and Hypertrophy are reversible via what?
Tissue and cell atrophy
47
What is a physiological example of Hypertrophy/Hyperplasia?
Lactation, breast epithelial cells increase in size and number during pregnancy under endocrine stimulation.
48
What is pathological example of Hypertrophy/Hyperplasia?
Endometriosis, endometrial cells increase in number under abnormal endocrine stimulation from oestrogen secreting ovarian tumour.
49
What is an example of metaplasia in the lungs?
Ciliated columnar epithelium are found in the bronchus and when stimulated by cigarette smoke can differentiate into Stratified squamous epithelium
50
What is an example of metaplasia in the bladder?
Transitional epithelium are found in the bladder and when stimulated by bladder stones can differentiate into stratified squamous epithelium
51
What is an example of metaplasia in the oesophagus?
Stratified squamous epithelium in the oesophagus are stimulated by gastric acid and differentiate into columnar epithelium (barrets oesophagus)
52
What occurs when a cell cannot adapt to environmental changes?
Cell injury or death or Dysplasia and neoplasia
53
What occurs when a reversible change in cell growth occurs?
Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Atrophy and Metaplasia
54
What is an example of dysplasia?
Sunburned skin (cells are not fully or abnormally developed due to loss of epidermis)
55
What is cervical dysplasia and neoplasia?
Normal epithelial layers in cervix show differentiation of cells from basal layer of the vagina. Can occur when an increased number of the basal nucleated cells reach the vagina. The Stratified layer loses its differentiation (becomes neoplastic).
56
What is a neoplastic state?
Poorly regulated cell division in which a mass of cells form=neoplasm. cellular proliferation and differentiation continues after the removal of the stimulus and occurs because of a failure of the mechanisms controlling cell proliferation and maturation. Changes in genetic material are transmitted to each new generation of cells
57
What causes Metastasis?
Escape of the neoplasm through the basement membrane to other areas of the cell
58
Surface epithelium tumours are known as?
benign=Papilloma, Malignant=Carcinoma
59
Simple Squamous and Simple Transitional tumour are known as?
benign= Squamous and/or transitional cell papilloma's, Malignant=Squamous andor/transitional cell Carcinomas
60
Solid Glandular tumours in the Thyroid, liver and Kidney are known as?
Benign=Thyroid/Renal/Hepatic adenoma, Malignant=Thyroid/Renal/Hepatic adenocarcinoma
61
benign vs Malignant tumours
benign= Well defined-similar structure to origin tissue and progresses slowly. Malignant= Can lack differentiation, erratic growth, Locally invasive and metastatic
62
What are the four main routes tumour spread in?
Locally, trans-coelomic (Peritoneal or Pleural), Lymphatic or Blood borne
63
Connective tissues does what?
General Structure, Fills in spaces, mechanical strength and physical and metabolic support for more specialised tissues.
64
What the three properties of connective tissue?
tensile strength (Collagen), Elasticity (Elastin) and Volume (Ground Substance)
65
What are the four classes of connective tissue?
Connective tissue proper, Cartilage, Bone and Blood
66
What are the two subtypes of Connective Tissue proper?
Loose and Dense
67
What are the three types of Loose Connective tissue proper?
has an open loose structure. Areolar (strong, yet cushioning. underlies epithelium and forms lamina propria), Reticular (Reticular fibres(support mesh) and Supports organs), and Adipose (Adipocytes, White-stores energy and Brown-thermoregulates)
68
What are the two types of dense Connective tissue proper?
Little ground substance and Greater proportion of fibres. Regular (Parallel fibres, main type 1 collagen) makes up tendons and ligaments, Irregular (non parallel fibres found in the dermis)
69
What are the three types of cartilage?
Hyaline (Smooth, translucent with few collagen fibres. Ends bones e.g. tracheal rings), Fibrocartilage (many collagen fibres e.g. cartilaginous joints, meniscus of knee), Elastic (Elastin and collagen fibres e.g. ear).
70
Connective tissue has two main components, what are they?
Cells and the extracellular matrix
71
What are support cells?
Cells derived from the embryonic tissue mesenchyme which produce the extracellular matric components.
72
What are example of Support cells?
Fibroblasts which form Fibrocytes and support Connective tissue proper, Chondroblasts which from chondrocytes and support cartilage and Osteoblasts which form osteocytes and support the bone ECM.
73
What are the matrix components and general function of Connective tissue proper?
Matrix made of gel like ground substance; all three fibre types and its function is to bind tissue and resist tension and mechanical stress
74
What are the matrix components and general function of Cartilage?
Gel like ground substance; Collagen fibres and some elastin and its function is to resist compression, cushion and support body structures.
75
What are the matric components and general function of Bone?
Gel-like ground substance hardened with calcium salts and collagen fibres with a function that resists compression and tension but supports.
76
What are the two main components of the Extracellular matrix?
Ground substance and Fibrillar and Adhesion proteins
77
what is ground substance made up of?
Glycosaminoglycans (long branching polysaccharides) and proteoglycans (proteins which covalently bond to GAGs). Ground substance binds to water, salts, collagen proteins and other module to make the matrix
78
What are the function of fibrillar and adhesion proteins?
Fibrillar fibres provide strength and elasticity and adhesion proteins link fibres, ground substance and cells together
79
What is the most common GAG?
Hyaluronic acid
80
Collagen and Elastin are what kind of protein?
Fibrillar proteins
81
What is collagen?
A fibrillar protein, made up of a series of twisted protein fibres, the most abundant protein in the body, found in most supported tissues, secreted by fibroblasts and stains pink in H&E
82
How many different types of collagen are there?
28, Type 1 = 90% of all collagen in the body and makes up ligaments, tendon, bone and skin. Type 2 makes up cartilage, Type 3 makes up Reticular tissues (forms reticular fibres and Type 4 makes up the basement membrane.
83
What are the properties of elastin?
Produced by fibroblasts, Abundant in blood vessels, skin, lungs and elastic cartilage. Is comprised of short segments allowing for stretch and relaxation
84
What are the two types of adhesion proteins?
Fibronectin (A dimeric glycoprotein which binds collagen, proteoglycans and cells. Binds collagen to integrins on the cell surface). Lamin (binds multiple components of the ECM, Forms sheets that make up the basement membrane Binds cells to integrins and basement membrane)
85
How do support cells bind to the ECM?
via Focal adhesions
86
What is the most universal response to tissue damage?
Inflammation
87
What are the three main stages of inflammation?
Vascular dilation (after brief phase of vasoconstriction, is mediated by histamine and mast cells), Endothelial activation (activates cell swelling) and Neutrophil activation and migration.
88
What are outcomes of acute inflammation?
regeneration, Organization and repair, or chronic inflammation. These outcomes are effects by the severity of the damage, capacity of the cells to repair or regenerate and the type of agent which caused the damage
89
What must occur for restoration of normal tissue after damage?
The stroma (connective tissue framework) must be intact and damaged cells must be capable of regeneration
90
How does repair occur?
Macrophages clear debris and a granulation tissue is laid down. Damaged area is first replaced with capillaries, macrophages and support cells, eventually fibroblasts begin to proliferate, capillaries regress and are replaced with collagen with the fibroblasts aligning so collagen is laid correctly for scar formation.
91
What causes a keloid scar?
Over proliferation of collagen
92
What diseased can arise because of collagen defects?
Point mutation in collagen one causes brittle bone disease (osteogenesis imperfecta) and other mutations produce Ehlers Danlos syndrome.
93
What are brittle bone disease symptoms?
blue sclera, brittle bones, Hypermobility and Cardiovascular implication during pregnancy.
94
What are Ehlers Danlos symptoms?
loose joints, stretchy skin and abnormal scar formation with an increased risk of dislocations, scoliosis and osteoarthritis. Collagen is weaker and can occur at many points in the collagen synthesis pathway.
95
What is Alport Syndrome?
Mutation in gene encoding type 4 collagen, as a result inherits kidney disease, kidney dysfunction, deafness and visual abnormalities, Glomerular basement membrane disrupted leading to blood and proteins being secreted.
96
What is Marfan Syndrome?
Mutations in Fibrillin gene on Chromosome 15. Fibrillin is important in the synthesis/adhesion of elastin fibres and is a component of blood vessel walls, eyes, ligaments and lungs, causes skeletal defects and cardiovascular implications
97
What are signs of Marfan Syndrome?
long limbs, extended fingers, chest abnormalities, curved spine, highly arched palate and crowded teeth, Cardiovascular abnormalities of the aorta.

Anat 241 (3 decks)

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