Module 2: Pragmatics

Question 1

Pragmatics vs. Grammar

Answer 1

Pragmatics is the study of how language is affected by the context in which it occurs.

Grammar is the study of internal structure of language.

Pragmatics: language use
Grammar: language structure

Question 2

Grammar areas of study

Answer 2

Semantics, syntax, morphology, phonology

Question 3

Implicature

Answer 3

An utterance can imply a proposition that is not part of the utterance and that does not follow as a necessary consequence of the utterance.

More than one implicature can arise from an utterance.

An implicature arises in the mind of a hearer when the speaker flouts one of the maxims of the cooperative principle.

Question 4

Cooperative Principle

Answer 4

Assumption that participants in a conversation are cooperating with each other. (Paul Grice) - possible way explain implicature.

Cooperative Principle consists of four conversational maxims: Quantity, quality, relation, manner

Grice claims we don’t construct conversations with only these rules, but we interpret what we hear as if it conforms to these maxims.

When a maxim is violated, we draw an inference (an implicature) which makes the utterance conform to the maxims.

Question 5

Quantity maxim (Cooperative Principle)

Answer 5

Participant’s contribution should be informative. Should be no more or less informative than required by conversation

Question 6

Quality maxim (Cooperative Principle)

Answer 6

Participant’s contribution should be true. Based on sufficient evidence.

Question 7

Relation maxim (Cooperative Principle)

Answer 7

Participant’s contribution should be relevant to the subject of the conversation.

Question 8

Manner maxim (Cooperative Principle)

Answer 8

Participant’s contribution should be clear. Should not be vague, ambiguous, or excessively wordy.

Question 9

Flouting (Cooperative Principle)

Answer 9

Intentional violation of a maxim for the purpose of conveying an unstated proposition.

Question 10

Speech acts

Answer 10

An utterance can be used to perform an act. Uttering a sentence can do things as well as say things (John Austin)

Each speech act has two facets: Locutionary act and an illocutionary act.

Question 11

Locutionary act (Speech act)

Answer 11

The act of saying something. It is a description of what the speaker says. The act typically the act of using a referring expression and a predicating expression.

Question 12

Referring expression

Answer 12

a referring expression (RE) is any noun phrase, or surrogate for a noun phrase, whose function in discourse is to identify some individual object.

Question 13

Predicating expression

Answer 13

A predicate is a verb that expresses the subject’s action or state of being.

Question 14

Illocutionary act (Speech Act)

Answer 14

What the speaker does in uttering a sentence. Includes: stating, requesting, questionaing, promising, apologizing, appointing.

Sometimes called illocutionary force of the utterance.

Question 15

Types of illocutionary acts (Speech Acts)

Answer 15

John Searle - endless number of illocutionary acts but can classify: Representative, Directive, Question, Commissive, Expressive, Declaration

Question 16

Representative (Illocutionary act type)

Answer 16

Used to describe some state of affairs. Includes: stating, asserting, denying, confessing, admitting, notifying, concluding, predicting

Question 17

Directive (Illocutionary act type)

Answer 17

Used to try to get the hearer to do something. Includes: requesting, ordering, forbidding, warning, advising, suggesting, insisting, recommending

Question 18

Question (Illocutionary act type)

Answer 18

Used to get the hearer to provide info. Includes: asking, inquiring.

Question 19

Commissive (Illocutionary type)

Answer 19

Used to commit the speaker to do something. Includes: promising, vowing, volunteering, offering, guaranteeing, pledging, betting.

Question 20

Expressive (Illocutionary type)

Answer 20

Used to express speaker’s emotional state. Includes: apologizing, thanking, congratulating, condoling, welcoming, deploring, objecting.

Question 21

Declaration (Illocutionary type)

Answer 21

Used to change the status of some entity. Includes: appointing, naming, resigning, baptizing, surrendering, excommunicating, arresting.

Question 22

Felicity conditions (Illocutionary act)

Answer 22

Context is an important factor in valid performance of an illocutionary act.

Question 23

Explicit vs. Nonexplicit Illocutionary Acts

Answer 23

Austin: English contains a set of verbs that names the illocutionary force of that verb. Examples: confess, promise, apologize.

Explicit performative describes an utterance that contains a performative verb used in its performative sense.

Nonexplicit performative does not include a performative verb used in its performative sense.

Question 24

Performative Verbs (Illocutionary Acts)

Answer 24

English contains a set of verbs that names the illocutionary force of that verb. Sentences performs the act named by the verb.

In order to have its performative sense (performing the illocutionary act it names) it must: Be positive, Be present tense, Have a first person agent (performer of the action of the verb) and, Refer to a specfiic event.

Not all verbs are performative. Must meet the following criteria: describes a voluntary act, describes an act that can only be performed with words, can be used with the performance indicator “hereby”,

Question 25

Direct vs. indirect Illocutionary Acts

Answer 25

Direct illocutionary act - A directive delivered by means of an imperative sentence constitutes a direct illocutionary act. “Bring me my coat”

Indirect illocutionary act - Another sentence type used to issue a directive (i.e. an interrogative) constitutes an indirect illocutionary act.

Syntactic form of the utterance does not match the illocutionary force of the utterance

“Would you bring me my coat?”