Module 2: Memory

Question 1

What are the three stages of information processing?

Answer 1

Input (through senses), encoding (storing info in electrochemical memory trace), and output (retrieval of memory)

Question 2

What are the three main types of encoding?

Answer 2

Acoustic encoding, visual encoding, and semantic encoding (meaning of information)

Question 3

What are the characteristics of short-term memory?

Answer 3

Duration: 18secs, rehearsed info for minutes (may be transferred to long term)
Capacity: 7 items
Forgetting: Displacement

Question 4

What are the characteristics of long-term memory?

Answer 4

Duration: Minutes to lifetime
Capacity: Unlimited
Forgetting: Memory decay, interference, retrieval failure

Question 5

What are the different types of forgetting?

Answer 5

• Displacement (capacity exceeded, new info pushes out old)
• Memory decay (trace eroded over time)
• Interference (trace over-written with new info)
• Retrieval failure (memory cannot be found)

Question 6

Define amnesia

Answer 6

Memory loss due to accident, disease or injury

Question 7

What are the characteristics of anterograde amnesia?

Answer 7

• Unable to form new long term memories
• Long term memories before damage retained

Question 8

What are the characteristics of retrograde amnesia?

Answer 8

• Cannot recall memories before damage
• Can be specific memory, time frame, or whole identity
• Possible to regain memories

Question 9

Describe Bartlett’s (1932) Theory of Reconstructive Memory

Answer 9

• Active reconstruction: memories as notes, upon recall details filled in with schemas
• Schemas: an expectation, influences perspective, built up over life through personal experiences
• Recall displays FORT (familiarisation, omission, rationalisation, transformation)

Question 10

Explain the ways Bartlett’s theory describes the reconstruction of recalled memories

Answer 10

FORT:
- Familiarisation: changing unfamiliar details to align with schema
- Omission: unfamiliar, irrelevant or unpleasant details omitted/simplified
- Rationalisation: details added to make sense of details that did not fit with a schema
- Transformations: details changed to make them more familiar/rational

Question 11

Give strengths of Bartlett’s (1932) Theory of Reconstructive Memory

Answer 11

• Practical applications: eye witnesses to crime given cognitive interview (designed to avoid omissions/transformations)
• Ecologically valid (study done on real uses of memory)

Question 12

Give weaknesses of Bartlett’s (1932) Theory of Reconstructive Memory

Answer 12

• Findings subjective (Bartlett’s own interpretations), therefore unscientific

Question 13

Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-Store Model of Memory

Answer 13

• Sensory register: held for <1sec, put into short-term if payed attention to
• Short-term: Stored for 15-30secs (maintained longer if rehearsed), modality-free (not linked to senses), only transferred to long-term if rehearsed
• Long-term: held indefinitely, potentially unlimited capacity, organised semantically

Question 14

Give evidence of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-Store Model of Memory

Answer 14

Evidence:
- Amnesia (retrograde/anterograde difference)
- Murdock’s (1962) study - found words at beginning & end of list remembered more than middle

Question 15

Give weaknesses of Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) Multi-Store Model of Memory

Answer 15

• Overstating role of rehearsal (non-rehearsed meaningful info still recalled)
• More than one type of long-term memory (events vs skils)

Question 16

Give the aims of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study

Answer 16

Test the nature of reconstructive memory using an unfamiliar story, see if schemas influence recall

Question 17

Describe the procedure of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study

Answer 17

• Participants asked to read unfamiliar ‘War of the Ghosts’ story twice
• Serial reproduction: retell story to another participant 15-30mins after reading, other participant tells it to another and so on
• Repeated reproduction: participant writes out story after 15mins, then asked to recall minutes, hours, days or years later

Question 18

Describe the results of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study

Answer 18

• Repeated reproductions followed the same outline as first
• Both types: participants made connections/gave reasons for events (rationalisation)
• Unfamiliar/unpleasant parts omitted, details/words familiarised

Question 19

Give the conclusions of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study

Answer 19

• Bartlett interpreted results as evidence for constructive memory
• Details omitted/familiarised to fit in with schema

Question 20

Give strengths of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study

Answer 20

• Ecological validity: story used (natural use of memory)
• Reliable: study repeated with other stories/pictures, participants still changed details
• Qualitative analysis used

Question 21

Give weaknesses of Bartlett’s (1932) War of the Ghosts study

Answer 21

• Unrealistic: unfamiliar story, was illogical
• Unscientific: qualitative analysis, bias from interpretations
• Lacked standardised procedure

Question 22

Give the aims of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) Short-term Retention study

Answer 22

To test the true duration of short-term memory

Question 23

Describe the procedure of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) Short-term Retention study

Answer 23

• Asked to say a trigram (series of three letters)
• Immediately asked to count back in threes from a three digit number to prevent rehearsal
• Signalled to recall trigram 3, 6, 9, 12, and 18 seconds after seeing it

Question 24

Describe the results of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) Short-term Retention study

Answer 24

• The longer the time delay, the less was remembered
• 3 seconds - greater than 80% remembered
• 18 seconds - less than 10% remembered

Question 25

Give the conclusions of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) Short-term Retention study

Answer 25

Information held in short-term memory fades after 18 seconds

Question 26

Give strengths of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) Short-term Retention study

Answer 26

Scientific: standardised procedure, good controls, can easily be replicated - reliable

Question 27

Give weaknesses of Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) Short-term Retention study

Answer 27

Lacks realism - nonsense trigrams not an everyday use of memory

Question 28

Describe reductionism

Answer 28

• Theory of explaining something via its most basic parts
• Can be more certain that one thing causes another
• Associated with controlled conditions/scientific method
• Can result in overly simplistic explanations and ignore other interactions of factors/causes

Question 29

Describe holism

Answer 29

• Theory of explaining something as a whole
• Understands that many factors/causes interact to create effects
• Associated with qualitative analysis
• Difficult to achieve (many variables) and is unscientific - results may only apply to an individual