MODULE 1 - Understanding Life-Span Human Development Flashcards
1
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development
(2)
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- Systematic changes in the individual occurring between conception and death; such changes can be positive, negative, or neutral.
- Development also involves continuities, ways in which we remain the same or continue to reflect our past selves
2
Q
The systematic changes and continuities of interest to students of human development fall into three broad domains:
A
- physical development
- cognitive development
- psychosocial development
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Q
Physical development
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The growth of the body and its organs, the functioning of physiological systems including the brain, physical signs of aging, changes in motor abilities, and so on.
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Cognitive development
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Changes and continuities in perception, language, learning, memory, problem solving, and other mental processes.
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Psychosocial development
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Changes and carryover in personal and interpersonal aspects of development, such as motives, emotions, personality traits, interpersonal skills and relationships, and roles played in the family and in the larger society.
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Q
growth
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The physical changes that occur from conception to maturity.
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Q
Biological aging
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The deterioration of organisms that leads inevitably to their death.
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Q
aging
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refers to a range of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes, positive and negative, in the mature organism
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Prenatal period
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Conception to birth
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Infancy
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First 2 years of life (the first month is the neonatal or newborn period)
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Preschool period
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2–5 (some prefer to describe as toddlers children who have begun to walk and are age 1–3)
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Middle childhood
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6 to about 10 (or until the onset of puberty)
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Adolescence
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Approximately 10–18 (or from puberty to when the individual becomes relatively independent)
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Emerging adulthood
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18–25 or even 29 (transitional period between adolescence and adulthood)
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Early adulthood
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25–40 years (adult roles are established)
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Middle adulthood
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40–65 years
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Late adulthood
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65 years and older (some break out subcategories such as the young-old, old-old, and very old based on differences in functioning)
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Q
Nature (2)
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- Those who emphasize the influence of heredity, universal maturational processes guided by the genes, biologically based or innate predispositions produced by evolution, and biological influences on us every day of hormones, neurotransmitters, and other biochemicals.
- To those who emphasize nature, some aspects of development are inborn or innate, others are the product of maturation , the biological unfolding of the individual as sketched out in the genes (the hereditary material passed from parents to child at conception)
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Q
Nurture (2)
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- emphasizes change in response to environment —all the external physical and social conditions, stimuli, and events that can affect us, from crowded living quarters and polluted air, to social interactions with family members, peers, and teachers, to the neighborhood and broader cultural context in which we develop.
- emphasizes learning —the process through which experience brings about relatively permanent changes in thoughts, feelings, or behavior.
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Q
The Language of Nature and Nurture: Nature (4)
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Heredity
Maturation
Genes
Innate or biologically based predispositions
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Q
The Language of Nature and Nurture: Nurture (4)
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Environment
Learning
Experience
Cultural influences
22
Q
The goals driving the study of life-span development are: (4)
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- describing,
- predicting,
- explaining, and
- optimizing development
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Q
evidence-based practice
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grounding what they do in research and ensuring that the curricula and treatments they provide have been demonstrated to be effective
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Q
baby biographies
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Carefully recorded observations of the growth and development of children by their parents over a period; the first scientific investigations of development.
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storm and stress
G. Stanley Hall’s term for the emotional ups and downs and rapid changes that he believed characterize adolescence.
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gerontology
The study of aging and old age.
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life-span perspective
A perspective that views development as a lifelong, multidirectional process that involves gain and loss, is characterized by considerable plasticity, is shaped by its historical–cultural context, has many causes, and is best viewed from a multidisciplinary perspective.
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is credited with encouraging adoption of a life-span perspective on development.
Paul Baltes
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Founder of developmental psychology
G. Stanley Hall
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important themes (7)
1. Development is a lifelong process
2. Development is multidirectional
3. Development involves both gain and loss
4. Development is characterized by lifelong plasticity.
5. Development is shaped by its historical-cultural context
6. Development is multiply influenced.
7. Development must be studied by multiple disciplines
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neuroplasticity
The brain’s remarkable ability to change in response to experience throughout the life span, as when it recovers from injury or benefits from stimulating learning experiences.
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Plasticity
An openness of brain cells or of the organism as a whole to positive and negative environmental influence; a capacity to change in response to experience.
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Baltes’s modern life-span perspective assumes:
that development occurs throughout the life span, is multidirectional, involves gains and interlinked losses at every age, is characterized by plasticity, is affected by its historical and cultural context, is influenced by multiple, interacting causes, and is best studied by multiple disciplines.
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scientific method
An attitude or value about the pursuit of knowledge that dictates that investigators must be objective and must allow their data to decide the merits of their theorizing.
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theory
A set of concepts and propositions designed to organize, describe, and explain a set of observations.
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hypotheses
A theory-based prediction about what will hold true if we observe a phenomenon.
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A good theory should be: (3)
1. Internally consistent
2. Falsifiable
3. supported by data
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Internally consistent.
Its different parts and propositions should hang together and should not generate contradictory hypotheses.
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Falsifiable
It can be proved wrong; that is, it can generate specific hypotheses that can be tested and either supported or not supported by the data collected. If a theory is vague or does not generate clear hypotheses, it cannot be tested and will not be useful in advancing knowledge.
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Supported by data.
A good theory should help us better describe, predict, and explain human development; that is, its hypotheses should be confirmed by research results.
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sample
The group of individuals chosen to be the subjects of a study.
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population
A well-defined group that a researcher who studies a sample of individuals is interested in drawing conclusions about.
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random sample
A sample formed by identifying all members of the larger population of interest and then selecting a portion of them in an unbiased or random way to participate in the study; a technique to ensure that the sample studied is representative or typical of the larger population of interest
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three major methods of data collection used by developmental researchers:
1. verbal reports,
2. behavioral observations, and
3. physiological measurements.
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Naturalistic observation
A research method in which the scientist observes people as they engage in common everyday activities in their natural habitats. Contrast with structured observation.
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Structured observation
A research method in which scientists create special conditions designed to elicit the behavior of interest to achieve greater control over the conditions under which they gather behavioral data. Contrast with naturalistic observation.
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naturalistic observation has its limitations
(3)
1. some behaviours occur too infrequently and unexpectedly to be studied through naturalistic observation
2. it is difficult to pinpoint the causes of the behavior observed, because in a natural setting many events are usually happening at the same time, any of which may affect behavior
3. the presence of an observer can sometimes make people behave differently than they otherwise would
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Verbal Reports
Interviews, written questionnaires or surveys, ability and achievement tests, and personality scales all involve asking people questions, either about themselves
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Shortcomings of verbal reports
(3)
1. cannot be used with infants, young children, cognitively impaired elders, or other individuals who cannot read or understand speech well.
2. because individuals of different ages may not understand questions in the same way, age differences in responses may reflect age differences in comprehension or interpretation rather than age differences in the quality of interest to the researcher.
3. respondents may try to present themselves (or those they are providing information about) in a positive or socially desirable light.
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The main limitation of physiological measurements
is that it is not always clear exactly what they are assessing
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methods to examine relationships between one variable and another
(2)
experimental and correlational methods
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case study
An in-depth examination of an individual (or a small number of individuals), typically carried out by compiling and analyzing information from a variety of sources such as observing, testing, and interviewing the person or people who know the individual.
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The case study method can complement correlational and experimental research however a drawback is:
conclusions based on a single case (or four) may not generalize to other individuals, and inferences about what may have caused a person to develop as he or she did often need further study
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experiment
A research strategy in which the investigator manipulates or alters some aspect of a person’s environment to measure its effect on the individual’s behavior or development.
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The goal of an experiment
is to see whether the different treatments that form the independent variable have different effects on the behavior expected to be affected, the dependent variable in the experiment
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independent variable
The aspect of the environment that a researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment to see its effect on behavior; a causal variable.
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dependent variable
The aspect of behavior measured in an experiment and assumed to be under the control of, or dependent on, the independent variable.
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When cause-effect relationships are studied in an experiment...
the independent variable is the hypothesized cause and the dependent variable is the effect
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three critical features shared by any true experiment:
1. Random assignment
2. Manipulation of the independent variable
3. Experimental control
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Random assignment (2)
1. It helps ensure that the treatment groups are similar in all respects at the outset
2. Only if experimental groups are similar in all respects initially can researchers be confident that differences among groups at the end of the experiment were caused by differences in which experimental treatment they received
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Manipulation of the independent variable
Investigators must arrange the experiences that different groups in the experiment have so that the effects of those experiences can be assessed
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Experimental control
all factors other than the independent variable are controlled or held constant so that they cannot contribute to differences among the treatment groups
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The greatest strength of the experimental method is
its ability to establish unambiguously that one thing causes another—that manipulating the independent variable causes a change in the dependent variable
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limitations of the experimental method (2)
1. because experiments are often conducted in laboratory settings or under unusual conditions, the results may not always hold true in the real world
2. it often cannot be used for ethical reasons.
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because it is unethical to manipulate people’s lives, most developmental research is
correlational
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correlational method (4)
1. A research technique that involves determining whether two or more variables are related.
2. It cannot indicate that one thing caused another, but it can suggest that a causal relationship exists or allow us to predict one characteristic from our knowledge of another.
3. Researchers do not randomly assign participants to treatment conditions and manipulate the independent variable as in an experiment
4. researchers take people as they are and attempt to determine whether there are relationships among their experiences, characteristics, and developmental outcomes.
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In correlational studies, researchers often determine the strength of the relationship between two variables of interest by:
Calculating a correlation coefficient
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correlation coefficient (symbolized as r) (3)
1. A measure, ranging from +1.00 to −1.00, of the extent to which two variables or attributes are systematically related to each other in either a positive or a negative way.
2. A positive correlation of r = +90 would indicate a stronger, more predictable positive relationship than a smaller positive correlation such as r = +30
3. A correlation near 0.00 would be obtained if there was no relationship between the two variables
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important rival interpretations in most correlational studies
1. directionality problem
2. third variable problem
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directionality problem
The direction of the cause-effect relationship could be the reverse of what the researcher thinks it is
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third variable problem
The association between the two variables of interest may be caused by some third variable.
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the correlational method has one major limitation (2)
1. It cannot unambiguously establish a causal relationship between one variable and another the way an experiment can.
2. Correlational studies can only suggest that a causal relationship exists
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the correlational method is extremely valuable (2)
1. most important questions about human development can be addressed only through the correlational method because it would be unethical to manipulate people’s experiences in experiments
2. complex correlational studies and statistical analyses allow researchers to learn about how multiple factors operating in the “real world” may combine to influence development
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understanding of why humans develop as they do is best advanced when the results of different kinds of studies :
Converge: when experiments demonstrate a clear cause-effect relationship and correlational studies reveal that the same relationship seems to operate in everyday life
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meta-analysis
A research method in which the results of multiple studies addressing the same question are synthesized to produce overall conclusions.
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To describe development, researchers have relied extensively on two types of research designs; however they have also relied on this 3rd type as well.
1. the cross-sectional design and the longitudinal design
2. sequential
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cross-sectional design
A developmental research design in which different age groups are studied at the same point in time and compared.
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cohort
A group of people born at the same time; a particular generation of people.
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Age effects
are relationships between age (a rough proxy for changes brought about by nature and nurture) and an aspect of development.
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Cohort effects
are the effects of being born as a member of a particular cohort or generation in a particular historical context.
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major limitations of the cross-sectional design (2)
1. the presence of cohort effects poses a problem in cross-sectional research whenever the growing-up experiences of the cohorts being compared differ
2. each person is observed at only one point, researchers learn nothing about how individuals change with age
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advantages of cross-sectional research (2)
1. quick and easy: Researchers can go out this year, sample individuals of different ages, and be done with it
2. should yield valid conclusions about age effects if the cohorts studied are likely to have had similar growing-up experiences
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longitudinal design (2)
1. A developmental research design in which one group of subjects is studied repeatedly over months or years.
2. provides information about age changes rather than age differences
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Advantages of Longitudinal designs (3)
1. Because the longitudinal design traces changes in individuals as they age, it can tell whether most people change in the same direction or whether different individuals travel different developmental paths
2. It can indicate whether the characteristics and behaviors measured remain consistent over time
3. can tell whether experiences earlier in life predict traits and behaviors later in life
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limitations of the longitudinal design (3)
1. age effects and time-of-measurement effects are confounded.
2. Because of time-of-measurement effects, we may not know whether the age-related changes observed in a longitudinal study are generalizable to people developing in other sociohistorical contexts.
3. It is costly and time-consuming; its methods and measures may seem outdated or incomplete by the end of the study; its participants may drop out because they move, lose interest, or die; and participants may be affected by being tested repeatedly
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Time-of-measurement effects
1. In developmental research, the effects on findings of historical events occurring when the data for a study are being collected (for example, psychological changes brought about by an economic depression rather than as a function of aging). Contrast with age effects and cohort effects.
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sequential design
A developmental research design that combines the cross-sectional approach and the longitudinal approach in a single study to compensate for the weaknesses of each.
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Sequential designs can tell researchers: (3)
1. which age-related trends are truly developmental in nature and reflect how most people, regardless of cohort, can be expected to change over time (age effects
2. which age trends differ from cohort to cohort and suggest that each generation is affected by its distinct growing-up experiences (cohort effects
3. which trends suggest that events during a specific period of history affect all cohorts alive at the time (time-of-measurement effects).
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Disadvantages of sequential designs (2)
1. Complex, time-consuming, and expensive
2. Despite being the strongest method, may still leave questions unresolved
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challenges in the study of human development
being sensitive to cultural and subcultural differences and protecting the rights of research participants
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development is shaped by its cultural context
This implies that we need to study development in a variety of contexts using culturally sensitive research methods and measurements to understand both what is universal and what is culturally specific about human development
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WEIRD people (2)
1. An acronym referring to people living in societies that are Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic.
2. The field of psychology has been characterized as the study of WEIRD people (for example, American college students).
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ethnocentrism
The belief that one’s own cultural or ethnic group is superior to others.
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research ethics
Standards of conduct that investigators are ethically bound to honor to protect their research participants from physical or psychological harm.
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investigator’s ethical responsibilities to respecting the rights of research participants by (4)
1. allowing them to freely give their informed consent,
2. debriefing them afterward if they are not told everything in advance or are deceived,
3. protecting them from harm, and
4. treating any information they provide as confidential.
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Informed Consent (2)
1. Researchers generally should inform potential participants of all aspects of the research that might affect their decision to participate so that they can make a voluntary decision based on full knowledge of what the research involves
2. Investigators also must take care not to pressure anyone to participate and must respect participants’ right to refuse to participate, to drop out during the study, and to refuse to have their data used by the investigator.
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researchers who study such “vulnerable” populations should obtain at least:
the “assent” or agreement of the individual (if possible) as well as the informed consent from someone who can decide on the individual’s behalf
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Debriefing
Researchers generally tell participants about the purposes of the study in advance, but in some cases doing so would ruin the study.
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Protection from Harm
Researchers are bound not to harm research participants either physically or psychologically.
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Confidentiality
Researchers also have an ethical responsibility to keep confidential the information they collect.
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A theory also guides the collection of new facts or observations, making clear: (4)
1. what is most important to study,
2. what can be hypothesized or predicted about it,
3. how it should be studied, and
4. how findings should be interpreted.
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four major theoretical viewpoints
1. psychoanalytic
2. learning perspective
3. cognitive developmental
4. systems theory
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developers of psychoanalytic
viewpoint developed by Sigmund Freud and revised by Erik Erikson and other neo-Freudians
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developers of learning perspective
developed by such pioneers as Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, B. F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura
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developers of cognitive developmental
viewpoint associated with Jean Piaget
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developers of systems theory
exemplified by Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model
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four key developmental issues on which theorists—and people in general—often disagree
1. nature–nurture,
2. activity–passivity,
3. continuity–discontinuity, and
4. universality–context specificity
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activity–passivity issue
The issue in developmental theory centering on whether humans are active contributors to their own development or are passively shaped by forces beyond their control.
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Continuity–Discontinuity
The debate among theorists about whether human development is best characterized as gradual and continuous or abrupt and stagelike.
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developmental stages
A
distinct phase within a larger sequence of development; a period characterized by a particular set of abilities, motives, behaviors, or emotions that occur together and form a coherent pattern.
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universality–context specificity issue
The debate over the extent to which developmental changes are common to everyone (universal, as in most stage theories) or different from person to person (particularistic).
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psychoanalytic theory
The theoretical perspective associated with Freud and his followers that emphasizes unconscious motivations for behavior, conflicts within the personality, and stages of psychosexual development.
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