Module 1 (Psychology as a Science): The Scientific Method, Paradigms and Research Methods

Question 1

Research Design/Methods (6 types, order of “order of control”)

Answer 1

1. Introspection - looking inward and reporting on mechaniations of ones own mind. Observing and resporting without influence of prior knowledge. Varies with complex process and individual difference
2. Naturalistic Observation - observing people in setting or task enviornment without interviewing; objective method of assessing behaviour without self-report bias. Establishes baseline behaviour that modifications and further research can stem from.
3. Case Study - biographical information about a single individual, can provide existence proofs about phenomena and can hint as causal relationships
4. Surveys/Self report - structured set of questions that can quanitfy introspective insights
5. Correlaitonal - quantify or measure the statistical strength between two variables, from observational data, cannot infer causality
6. Experimental - Random allocation of people to groups which differ in only one variable (single systematic difference) to test for observable causality within a relationship

A variety of methologies are used to provide converging evidence for a theory, especially in experimental research designs are inefficient or unethical

Question 2

Sigmund Freud

Answer 2

• Not scientific/scientifically tested, more philosophical
• Explore significance of unconsciousness (the ID wants stuff, the Super ego cares about rules and rationality, the Ego balances the two)
• focus on therapy/psychodymanic psychology - talk through problems to understand and come to terms with them

Question 3

Features of a Science

Answer 3

1. Grounded in Observation and Data
2. Cumulative - base of knowledge grows and is refined over time
3. Self-Correcting - errors or misconceptions are (eventually) excised
4. Achieves Explanation and Understanding - singular theory can account for multitude of findings

Question 4

The Scientific Method

Answer 4

Observation (Data) –> Explanation (Theory) –> Prediction (Hypothesis) –> back to observation/data

Question 5

Critical Thinking and Judgement

Answer 5

• Judgements about quality of data - reliability and validity
• Judgements about adequecy of theory - must be general, testable, predict novel observations or retrospective, falsifiability, parsimonious (the simplest explanation that explains all observations), rule out other theoretical intepretations/alternative explanations
• Judgements about alternative explanations - correlation vs causation, unnaccounted-for variables

Question 6

Quantitave Measurement

Answer 6

• Numerical value of a measure makes it objective
• allows for comparison of different individuals or the same individual over time

Question 7

Samples vs Populations

Answer 7

• make conclusions about sample to make generalisations about population
• what might be true of the population/sample, may not be true of the individual
• samples may not match

Question 8

Uncertainty

Answer 8

• probability of results being caused by chance; certainty that changes in the dependent variable were caused by the independent variable
• false positive effect; false negative
• 5% statistical significance

Question 9

Paradigms

Answer 9

Paradigms are frameworks for understanding and investigating phenomena. They define conepts used in theories, research questions and methodologies to attain data. They provide a template and set of background assumptions. Example: Miasma and Germ Theory

Question 10

Behaviourist Paradigm

Answer 10

• Root metaphor: Blank slate - behaviours are completely determined by enviornment
• Key concepts: reinforcement and learning
• claims internal unobservable phenomena cannot justify scientific conclusions
• Radical behaviourism: external environmental factors are a determinant of both observable and unobservable behaviours (behaviour expanded to included thoughts and feelings as well)

Question 11

Cognitive Paradigm

Answer 11

• Root Metaphor: Computer
• mental events and process influence behaviour, implying there is a layer of interpretation (cognition) between stimuli and behaviour
• Key concepts: Mental representations and mental states - focus on the unobservable mental processes (attention, memory, decision making) and their observable effects

Question 12

Biological Paradigm

Answer 12

• Root Metaphor: Biological Machine
• Behvaiour and mental processs are a result of biological determinants
• Key Concepts: evolution, genetics, physiological functions - focus on physiological correlations with behaviours/cognition (brain activity, genetic contribution)

Question 13

Confirmation bias and research methodologies in decreasing confirmation bias

Answer 13

• People seek information that confirms their beliefs. Epected/favoured events are highlighted, unexpected/unfavourable events are minimised.
• Research methodoloiges impose control and structure over observations, critising all observations and theorised relationships to same extent

Question 14

Bias

Answer 14

Bias is any factor that affects the data obtained in a study and can comprimise conclusions and theoretical inferences

Question 15

Sources of Bias

Answer 15

Sampling Bias
* when the study sample does not accurately represent the broader population, comprising generalisability of conclusions

Expectation Effects
* Participants expectations (plcebo effect, hawthorne effect, stereotype threat, demand effects) can be reduced by single-blind research
* Experimentor expectations (rosenthal effects - pygmalion/golem) can be reduced by double-blind research

Operational Definition
* inaccurate representation of theoretical construct through an experiments operation/method
* calls on validity
* different measure align and reflect contructs to different extents