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NAN Neuroanatomy > Module 1: Organization of the Nervous System > Flashcards

Module 1: Organization of the Nervous System Flashcards

Develop understanding of the organization of the nervous system.

1
Q

What are the 3 divisions of the primitive (fish) brain?

A

Prosencephalon (front brain)
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)

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2
Q

In mammals, the prosencephalon develops to form which two structures?

A

Telencephalon

Diencephalon

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3
Q

In mammals, the rhombencephalon develops into what two structures?

A

Metencephalon

Myelencephalon

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4
Q

What are the 5 components of the telencephalon?

A 
Neocortex
Basal Ganglia
Limbic System
Olfactory Bulb
Lateral Ventricles
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5
Q

What are the 4 components of the diencephalon?

A

Thalamus
Epithalamus (pineal body)
Hypothalamus
Third ventricle

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6
Q

What are the 3 components of the mesencephalon?

A

Tectum
Tegmentum
Cerebral Aqueduct

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7
Q

What are the 3 components of the metencephalon?

A

Cerebellum
Pons
Fourth Ventricle

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8
Q

What are the two components of the myelencephalon?

A

Medulla Oblongata

Fourth Ventricle

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9
Q

Midsagittal

A

the plane vertically dividing the body through the midline into right and left halves

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10
Q

Sagittal

A

any plane parallel to the midsagittal line dividing the body into right and left portions

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11
Q

Transverse

A

(horizontal) any plane dividing the body into superior and inferior portions

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12
Q

Coronal

A

(frontal) Any plane dividing the body into anterior and posterior portions; at a right angle to sagittal plane

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13
Q

Ipsilateral

A

When two structures lie on the same side

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14
Q

Contralateral

A

When two structures lie on opposite sides

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15
Q

Bilateral

A

When two identical structures lie on each side of the body.

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16
Q

Proximal

A

Structures that are close to one another; also closer to the midline of the body

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17
Q

Distal

A

Structures that are far away from one another; also ones that are farther away from the midline.

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18
Q

Afferent

A

An approaching pathway

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19
Q

Efferent

A

Pathway that is traveling away from a given structure

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20
Q

Dermatomes

A

Area of skin supplied with sensory (afferent) nerve fibers by a single spinal segment

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21
Q

What formation do dermatomes take?

A

Dermatomes encircle the body in a ring formation; they are distorted in humans due to the upright posture.

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22
Q

What is the CNS composed of?

A

brain + spinal cord

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23
Q

What is the PNS composed of?

A

12 cranial nerves + 31 pairs of spinal nerves

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24
Q

What comprises the 31 pairs of spinal nerves?

A 
8 cervical (C)
12 thoracic (T)
5 lumbar (L)
5 sacral (S)
1 coccygeal
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25
Q

What do cord segments connect with?

A

Dermatomes of the same number

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26
Q

Dorsal Root

A

A collection of fibers entering the dorsal portion of the spinal cord that carry information from the sensory receptors

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27
Q

Ventral Root

A

Collection of fibers leaving the ventral (anterior) portion of spinal cord that carry information from spinal cord to muscles

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28
Q

What type of function does the dorsal root serve?

A

Sensory

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29
Q

What type of function does the ventral root serve?

A

Motor

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30
Q

Bell-Magendie Law

A

Cutting the dorsal root causes loss of sensation while cutting the ventral root causes loss of motor function

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31
Q

Dermatomes of internal organs

A

Organs (liver, kidney, heart, lungs) in the body are also arragned segmentally

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32
Q

True of False: Organs have no sensory representation in the brain.

A

True

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33
Q

Where is pain in organs felt?

A

Within the portion of the dermatome it resides in

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34
Q

Referred pain

A

Pain that is felt in a body part that is away from the site of disease or injury

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35
Q

Where is the spinal cord damage in an individual with paraplegia?

A

In the lower regions, i.e. lumbar or sacral

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36
Q

Where is the spinal cord damage in an individual with quadriplegia?

A

At the higher regions, i.e. cervical

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37
Q

Spinal Reflex Arc

A

The neural pathway that controls an action reflex through a synapse in the spinal cord; allows for quicker response to pernicious sensory information by initiating a motor response without awaiting input from the brain.

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38
Q

Withdrawal Reflex

A

A polysynaptic spinal reflex intended to protect the body from damaging stimuli via stimulation of sensory, association, and motor neurons

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39
Q

What is the withdrawal reflex proportional to?

A

The intensity of the stimulus.

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40
Q

Stimulation of what receptors cause flexor withdrawal reflex?

A

Pain and temperature

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41
Q

Stimulation of what receptors cause an extensor reflex?

A

Fine (discriminative) tactile/touch and pressure receptors

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42
Q

What does the hindbrain consist of?

A

Medulla Oblongata
Pons
Cerebellum

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43
Q

Sensory (afferent) fibers from the spinal cord pass through where on their way to the thalamus?

A

Brainstem

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44
Q

Motor (efferent) fibers from the cortex to the anterior horn of the spinal cord pass through which structure?

A

Brainstem

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45
Q

Why do even small lesions on the brainstem have large effects?

A

Because the brainstem is packed with fibers can cranial nerve nuclei.

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46
Q

Where is the Reticular Activating System (RAS) located?

A

In the central core of the brainstem, i.e. the midbrain, pons, and superior medulla

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47
Q

What is the function of the RAS?

A

Maintenance of consciousness

control of sleep/wakefulness and arousal levels

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48
Q

What are the two subdivisions of the mesencephalon (midbrain)?

A

Tectum (roof) - above cerebral aqueduct

Tegmentum (floor) - below cerebral aqueduct

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49
Q

What does the tectum contain?

A

2 sets of bilaterally symmetrical nuclei: superior colliculi and inferior colliculi

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50
Q

Superior Colliculi

A

Receives input from the retina; mediates visual behaviors

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51
Q

Inferior colliculi

A

Receives input from the ears; mediates auditory-related behaviors

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52
Q

Tegmentum

A

Contains some cranial nerve nuclei (primarily motor), substantia nigra, and the VTA

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53
Q

Cranial Nerve I

A

Olfactory - smell

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54
Q

Cranial Nerve II

A

Optic - vision

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55
Q

Cranial Nerve III

A

Occulomotor - eye movement/pupil constriction

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56
Q

Cranial Nerve IV

A

Trochlear - eye movement

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57
Q

Cranial Nerve V

A

Trigeminal - face sensation/ jaw movement

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58
Q

Cranial Nerve VI

A

Abducens - eye movement

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59
Q

Cranial Nerve VII

A

Facial - facial movements

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60
Q

Cranial Nerve VIII

A

Cochleo-vestibular - hearing/equilibrium

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61
Q

Cranial Nerve IX

A

Glossopharyngeal - taste/pharynx

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62
Q

Cranial Nerve X

A

Vagus - heart, vessels, viscera - movement of larynx and pharynx

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63
Q

Cranial Nerve XI

A

Spinal Accessory - neck muscles

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64
Q

Cranial Nerve XII

A

Hypoglossal - tongue muscles

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65
Q

What are the 3 major streams of input into the cerebellum?

A

From cortex
From vestibular apparatus
From body via spinal cord

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66
Q

Vestibular Apparatus

A

the inner ear structures that are associated with balance and position sense; includes the vestibule and semicircular canals

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67
Q

Of the 3 major streams of input to the cerebellum, which on controls skilled movement?

A

The major portions that receive input from the cortex

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68
Q

Of the 3 major streams of input to the cerebellum, which one maintains the body’s equilibrium?

A

The portions that receive input from the vestibular system.

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69
Q

Of the 3 major streams of input into the cerebellum, which on is responsible for postural reflexes and coordinating related muscle groups?

A

The parts that receive input from the body

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70
Q

What does input from the cortex to the cerebellum control?

A

skilled movement

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71
Q

What does input from the vestibular system to the cerebellum control?

A

Maintenance of the body’s equilibrium

72
Q

What does input from the body to the cerebellum control?

A

Postural reflexes and coordination of related muscle groups

73
Q

Folia

A

The many narrow folds found on the surface of the cerebellum

74
Q

What are the 3 major pathways that connect the cerebellum to the brainstem?

A

Inferior, middle, and superior cerebellar peduncles

75
Q

What types of impairments are present when the cerebellum is damaged?

A

equilibrium
skilled motor activity
postural defects

76
Q

What are the effects of cerebellar damage?

A
  • Smooth movement broken into jerky, sequential components
  • impaired rapid alternation movements
  • Directed movements overshoot their mark
77
Q

What are the 3 thalamic structures that comprise the diencephalon?

A

Thalamus
Epithalamus (pineal body)
Hypothalamus

78
Q

T or F: The functions of the epithalamus are not well understood.

A

True

79
Q

What is one of the structures found in the epithalamus?

A

Pineal body

80
Q

What does the pineal body contain?

A

Melanin

81
Q

What does the pineal body do?

A

It regulates the circadian rhythm

82
Q

With the exception of olfaction, what structure do all sensory systems pass through?

A

Thalamus

83
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Composed of ~22 small nuclei

84
Q

What passes through the hypothalamus?

A

Ascending fiber systems

85
Q

What structures does the hypothalamus project to?

A

pituitary gland

brainstem nuclei

86
Q

Where does the chief brain nucleus controlling the autonomic nervous system reside?

A

Hypothalamus

87
Q

What does the hypothalamus regulate?

A

Feeding, sexual behavior, sleep, temperature, emotional behavior, endocrine function

88
Q

What does the forebrain consist of?

A

Cortex
Limbic structures
Thalamus
Olfactory bulbs and tract

89
Q

Fissure

A

Cleft that extends deep into brain

90
Q

Sulcus

A

Cleft that is more shallow than the fissure

91
Q

Gyrus

A

A ridge on the cerebral cortex

92
Q

T or F: All human brains contain identical gyri and sulci.

A

F; there are hemispheric and individual variations in the location and size of gyri and sulci.

93
Q

What are the cortical landmarks?

A 
Lateral (Sylvian) fissure
Central sulcus (aka fissure of Rolando)
Medial Longitudinal Fissure (aka interhemispheric fissure)
94
Q

What are the 4 lobes found in each hemisphere of the brain?

A

Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital

95
Q

What are the 3 gyri found in the lateral prefrontal lobe?

A

Superior frontal gyrus
Middle frontal gyrus
Inferior frontal gyrus

96
Q

What gyrus is found in the lateral frontal lobe?

A

Precentral gyrus

97
Q

What are the medial frontal lobe gyri?

A 
Superior frontal gyrus
Gyrus rectus
Subcallosal gyrus
Cingulate gyrus
Paracentral gyrus
98
Q

What are the 3 lateral parietal lobe gyri?

A

Superior parietal lobule
Supermarginal gyrus
Angular gyrus

99
Q

What is the medial parietal gyrus?

A

Percuneous

100
Q

What are the three lateral temporal lobe gyri?

A

Superior temporal gyrus
Middle temporal gyrus
Inferior temporal gyrus

101
Q

What is the medial temporal lobe gyrus named?

A

The uncus

102
Q

What are the two inferior surface temporal lobe gyri?

A 
Parahippocampal gyrus
Occipitotemporal gyrus (aka fusiform gyrus)
103
Q

What is the one lateral occipital gyrus called?

A

Lateral occipital lobe gyrus

104
Q

What are the two medical occipital lobe gyri?

A

Cuneus

Lingual gyrus

105
Q

Insula

A

Cortex that lies underneath posterior-inferior frontal lobe and the anterior-superior temporal lobe

106
Q

What is the posterior-inferior frontal lobe region also known as?

A

Frontal Opercular Region

107
Q

What is the anterior-superior temporal lobe also known?

A

Temporal Opercular Region

108
Q

Projection maps

A

Tracing axons from sensory systems to cortex & from cortex to motor systems

109
Q

Cytoarchitectonic maps

A

Study of different types of cells across the neocortex

110
Q

Functional maps

A

Lesions, electrical stimulation of cortex, recording cortex in response to sensory sensory stimulation, functional neuroimaging.

111
Q

What brain region does the visual sensory information project to?

A

Occipital lobe

112
Q

What brain region does the audio sensory information project to?

A

Temoral lobe

113
Q

What region does somatosensory information project to?

A

Parietal lobe

114
Q

What region of the brain does major motor outflow project to?

A

Frontal lobe

115
Q

Primary projection zones

A

Regions of the brain to which certain sensory information is projected (e.g. sensorimotor info to the parietal lobe, visual info to the occipital lobe, etc. )

116
Q

Secondary projection zones

A

Primary projection area neurons send projections to adjacent areas; serve to elaborate on elementary sensory input (e.g. vision = color, stereopsis, texture)

117
Q

Cortical neurons are arranged in how many layers?

A

6

118
Q

What is the first layer of cortical neurons?

A

Molecular layer I - most superficial

119
Q

What is the second layer of cortical neurons?

A

External granular layer II - sensory

120
Q

What is the third layer of cortical neurons?

A

External pyramidal layer III - motor

121
Q

What is the fourth layer of cortical neurons?

A

Internal granular layer IV - sensory

122
Q

What is the fifth layer of cortical neurons?

A

Internal pyramidal layer V - motor

123
Q

What is the sixth layer of cortical neurons?

A

Polymorphic cell layer VI - innermost

124
Q

What is an example of of one of the most common cytoarchitectural maps?

A

Brodmann’s map; the number on this map has no special meaning, just represent the order in which he examined the areas

125
Q

What are the major Brodmann’s areas related to vision?

A

Areas 17, 18, 19

126
Q

What are the major Brodmann’s areas related to audition?

A

Areas 41, 42

127
Q

What are the major Brodmann’s areas related to touch?

A

Areas 3, 1, 2

128
Q

What is the major Brodmann’s area related to motor function?

A

Area 4

129
Q

What did Dr. Wilder Penfield’s experiment consist of?

A

He directly stimulated the brains of conscious patients during brain surgery

130
Q

What were some of the major findings discovered from Dr. Penfield’s experiment?

A
  • Point-to-point relations between parts of body and parts of cortex
  • Areas with finder discriminative touch have larger areas of representation on cortex
  • Body represented upside down on postcentral and precentral gyrus - largest areas were designated for the lips and thumbs
131
Q

What is the purpose of functional maps?

A

To determine the parts of the cortex that are responsible for somatosensory, motor, and language; done during neurosurgery to avoid resecting vital areas of functioning for the patient

132
Q

What are two types of functional mapping?

A

Sensorimotor mapping

Speech mapping

133
Q

What are the 4 main types of functional imaging used by neuroscientists?

A

fMRI
PET
SPECT
MEG

134
Q

MEG

A

magnetoencephalography

135
Q

SPECT

A

single-positron emission computed tomography

136
Q

What are the 3 types of axon projections in the cortex?

A 
Short connections (between two gyri)
Longer connections (between lobes)
Interhemispheric connections (between two hemispheres)
137
Q

Short connections are also known as:

A

U fibers or arcuate fibers

138
Q

Longer connections are also known as:

A

Fasciculi or tracts

139
Q

What are interhemispheric connections also known as:

A

Commissures

140
Q

T or F: Isolated damage to a pathway results in less severe damage than damage to the cortex.

A

F; isolated damage to a pathway may result in as severe a deficit as damage to the cortex proper.

141
Q

What is the limbic lobe?

A

The middle brain layer sandwiched between the new brain (neocortex) and old brain (diencephalon) that is responsible for memory and emotion

142
Q

What are the 4 major structures of the limbic lobe?

A

Amygdala
Hippocampus
Septa nuclei
Cingulate gyrus (and cingulum bundle)

143
Q

What is the main function of the cingulate gyrus?

A

Motivation, drive; lesions here result in akinetic mutism, reduced drive

144
Q

What is the main function of the septal area?

A

“Pleasure center”; mediator of self-stimulation, self-reward

145
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

Group of nuclei lying deep beneath the anterior regions of the cortex

146
Q

What are the 5 components of the BG?

A 
Caudate nucleus (tailed nucleus)
Putamen (shell)
Globus pallidus (pale globe)
Amygdala (almond)
Substantia nigra in the midbrain
147
Q

Where does the caudate receive input from?

A

All areas of the cortex

148
Q

Where does the caudate project to?

A

Putamen and globus pallidus –> Thalamus

Thalamus –> motor areas of cortex

149
Q

The caudate and the putamen comprise what structure?

A

The neostriatum

150
Q

What does the substantia nigra deliver to the BG?

A

Dopamine (DA)

151
Q

What does damage to the BG result in?

A
  • Changes in posture, muscle tone, and abnormal movements (e.g. twitches, jerks, tremors)
  • Deficits in sequencing movements into smooth progression
152
Q

The BG is also though to support what type of learning?

A

habit/procedural learning

153
Q

Thalamus

A

Group of relay nuclei deep within the center of the brain

154
Q

Lateral geniculate body (LGB)

A

Receives input from retina, projects to visual cortex (Brodmann’s area 17) in occipital lobe

155
Q

Medial geniculate body (MGB)

A

Receives auditory projections, projects to primary auditory cortex (transverse gyri of Heschl, Brodman’s area 41, 42).

156
Q

Posterior areas of the cortex send projections to and receive input back from _________.

A

pulvinar

157
Q

Ventral posterior lateral (VPL) nucleus

A

Receives touch, pressure, pain, and temperature input from body - projects to somatosensory cortex (Brodmann’s areas 3, 1, 2).

158
Q

Limbic system project to the frontal lobe through what structure?

A

Dorsomedial (DM) nucleus

159
Q

Other limbic projections pass through mammillary bodies to __________ to cingulate gyrus.

A

Anterior nucleus

160
Q

BG projects to the motor cortex through what?

A

Ventral anterior nucleus (VA)

161
Q

Cerebellum projects to the motor cortex through what?

A

Ventral lateral nucleus (VL)

162
Q

Crossed Brain

A

Each cerebral hemisphere responds to sensory stimulation from the contralateral side of the body; also controls musculature on contralateral side of body

163
Q

Decussation

A

Occurs when sensory and motor nerve fibers cross obliquely from one side of the brain to another

164
Q

What produces CSF?

A

Chorioid plexus (specialized cluster of glial cells lying inside the ventricular cavity)

165
Q

How many ventricles are there in the mammallian brain?

A

4

166
Q

What are the 4 ventricles of the human brain?

A 
Lateral ventricles (I & II)
Third ventricle (III) - ventricle in the diencephalon
Fourth ventricle (IV) - lies between brainstem and cerebellum
167
Q

What are the main functions of the cerebral ventricles?

A
  • hydraulic buffer to protect tissue by absorbing blows to the head
  • dissemination of chemical to intercellular space
  • drains off metabolic waste
168
Q

CSF flows from ventricles to where?

A

Subarachnoid space

169
Q

What results from blocking CSF outflow?

A

hydrocephalus

170
Q

How is hydrocephalus treated?

A

Placement of a ventriculo-perotineal shunt in the lateral ventricles to drain excess CSF to the abdominal cavity

171
Q

What are the two major pairs of arteries that supply blood to the brain?

A 
Internal carotid arteries
Vertebral arteries (merge into basilar artery)
172
Q

Internal carotid arteries

A

Supply the anterior 2/3rds of the brain with blood (80%); predominantly cerebral distribution

173
Q

Vertebral arteries

A

Merge into basilar artery on the ventral brainstem (pons); supplies posterior 1/3rd of brain; predominantly cerebellar and brainstem distribution

174
Q

The internal carotid artery (ICA) enters skull at base of brain and branches into:

A

Anterior cerebral artery (ACA) and medial cerebral artery (MCA) which irrigates anterior-lateral and mesial cortex.

175
Q

The basilar artery gives rise to:

A

Posterior cerebral artery (PCA) which irrigates occipital lobe and medial temporal cortex

176
Q

Name the 4 ways in which the brain and spinal cord are protected from injury & infection.

A

1) Thick skull protects brain, vertebrae of spine protect spinal cord
2) 3 Outer membranes surround the brain & cord
3) Ventricles and CSF cushion brain from shock and sudden changes in CSF pressure
4) Blood-Brain-Barrier (BBB) protects against infection

177
Q

What are the three membranes protecting the brain?

A

Dura mater, arachnoid space, Pia mater

NAN Neuroanatomy (5 decks)

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