Module 1: Introduction To Pathology Flashcards
What Is Pathology
The Study of Disease. Includes cause and effect of disease, and a wide range of testing
The Patient Journey: Well
Considered a healthy individual before defined as a patient. Current lifestyle serves to define the baseline of the individual’s state of wellness. If not in need of medical intervention they are considered well
The Patient Journey: Health Decline
Visible decline in the individuals health. Patient typically manages by themselves or with primary care team. Could be prescribed medication
The Patient Journey: Triage
Patient can not manage illness on their own so they are taken to the hospital and placed in TRIAGE.
Triage - the process of determining the severity of disease of illness, to decide priority of treatment.
The Patient Journey: Admittance
Three common reasons for admittance:
- the condition is too severe to send the patient home
- The issue has not been identified
- The patient is stable, but needs to receive treatment and be monitored
Patient will then be seen by a specialist
The Patient Journey: Diagnosis
Test ordered by specialists to better characterize the disease. Results used to assess patients condition and propose treatment plan.
Point of Care Testing
Medical Diagnosis testing at the time and place of patient care, allowing physicians to collect real-time testing results.
The Patient Journey: Treatment
Once informed of diagnosis and prognosis, treatment options are discussed
- Medication
- Minimally invasive procedure
- Surgery
- Long term medical intervention
Prognosis
A medical term for predicting the likely or expected development of a disease, including whether the signs and symptoms will improve, worsen, or remain stable
The Patient Journey: Palliative Care
If treatment is unsuccessful or unavailable, and the patient’s condition is terminal, the primary goal becomes making the patient as comfortable as possible until death. Medication administered to relieve symptoms
The Patient Journey: Discharge
After successful treatment, a patient will be monitored in-hospital for a required amount of time, then discharged. Likely given prescriptions or follow up support
The Patient Journey: Monitoring
Patients will be expected to check in regularly with the hospital to ensure their treatment was effective. This follow-up may last for years, and could require additional hospital visits for further testing. Ensures patient adherence to the treatment protocol
Pathology Disease Paradigm: Etiology
The root cause of the disease
Pathology Disease Paradigm: Pathogenesis
Etiology leads to the development of disease and the mechanism of action
Pathology Disease Paradigm: Biochemical Changes
refer to the changes of
how the cells and body alter in metabolism. There may be a buildup of substances, due to the disease or a loss of essential substances needed for health
Pathology Disease Paradigm: Morphological Changes
Structural or tissue changes
that occur in response to the disease. These can be seen at the cellular tissue level as changes in appearance.
Pathology Disease Paradigm: Functional Changes
Symptoms associated with the disease. An example, could be a loss of mobility in a patient with arthritis
Pathology Disease Paradigm: Testing
Can determine if a disease is present and also identify the specific disease itself. There are many different kinds of tests that may be used from DNA
sequencing biochemical tests, like blood glucose levels, histology performed on a tumor biopsy to look for morphological changes, and a variety of functional tests like neurological assessments. These tests may also identify the best ways to treat and manage the disease
Pathology Disease Paradigm: Natural History
Progression of the disease,
which will determine the prognosis or the likely outcome for our patient
Pathology Disease Paradigm: Treatment
Management and care of a patient to combat disease or disorder. This may change over the course of the disease, and maybe short or long term
Pathology Disease Paradigm: Complications
Short and long term effects of the
disease itself and other factors that may impact the disease and the patient. These can include other health conditions, as well as social mental and physical factors. These complications may alter the natural history and treatment for an individual
Indigenous Knowledge from Action
learning through observation, action, reflection, and further action. It is also a method for sharing and learning from direct experience, and passing
knowledge down through generations
Indigenous Disease Knowledge and Treatment
ancestral knowledge contains stories of symptoms being observed within members of the community, as well as which traditional remedies were most effective in treating them
Haudenosaunee Oral Traditions: Knowledge Keepers
The young members with good memory are trained as Knowledge Keepers to remember the history, treaties, and other important events for the community which they recite
Haudenosaunee Oral Traditions: Ceremonial Speeches
The leaders within the longhouse and their helpers must be able to recite the ceremonial speeches
that were passed down to them through the oral tradition from previous generations
Haudenosaunee Oral Traditions: Storytelling
Stories are told to teach, to influence behaviour, to explain things in the natural world, and for pure enjoyment. Some require permission
Cells
Basic unit of life, composed of same DNA
Tissues
Groups of cells that function together are known as tissues. The cells differentiate into specialized cells to perform specific functions
Organs
collection of tissue that perform a shared function
Systems
Groups of organs working towards a common purpose to form a system.
Cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, excretory, immune, musculoskeletal, respiratory, reproductive, and nervous are the complete list of body systems found in human
Plasma Membrane
Composed of phospholipid bilayer.
Some molecules diffuse through while others need transporters (ex. integral proteins)
Receptor proteins found on the membrane
Nucleus
- Contains genome (DNA)
- DNA replication for cell division
- RNA transcription
Mitochondria
Adenosine Triphosphate production from break down of fats.
Krebs cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Protein translated and processed
- Lipid production
Golgi Apparatus
Processing and packaging of proteins and other molecules into vesicles
Lysosomes
Enzymes inside digest waste products and damaged cellular material, as well as destroy viruses and bacteria
Endosomes
transport vesicles that sort, store, and organize contents inside our cells, as well as those entering and exiting from the outside environment
Peroxisomes
breakdown of hydrogen peroxide and reactive oxygen species, as well
as the molecules that produce them. These chemicals can cause a lot of damage if not neutralized by the enzyme catalase, which is predominantly found in peroxisomes
Cytoplasm
fluid contained within the plasma membrane, where all of the other organelles
and cellular components are found. Its chemical composition is tightly regulated, as cellular processes require specific conditions (p H, ionic concentrations, etc.)
Cytoskeleton
a dense network of specialized structural filaments that add structure to otherwise
shapeless cells and generates force for cellular movement.
The cytoskeleton is also how the cell internally transports vesicles along its microtubules and
actin filaments throughout the cytoplasm
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
Flow of genetic information
- Replication (of DNA before cell division)
- Transcription (of RNA from DNA)
- Translation (into amino acid sequences)
Gene Regulation: Expression
Every cell has same DNA but have different structural and functional characteristics will have different genes turned on or off, known as gene expression profiles
Gene Expression Signals
Regulation allows a cell to respond to internal and environmental stimuli
ex. process of environmental stimulus and protein expression
1. Stimulus ligand binds to a receptor in the plasma membrane which triggers a chain of events.
2. Bound receptor activates a cellular signalling.
3. Signalling protein that travels into the nucleus to upregulate transcription.
4. An increase in transcription is shown producing mRNA.
5. This mRNA is then translated producing a protein.
6. The mature protein is secreted from the cell
Mutations
Changes in DNA sequence. Common causes are DNA damage or errors in replication. If DNA repair features fail the new sequence may lead to a change in the amino acid sequence in the protein. Mutant proteins often exhibit altered function, which may lead to
disease in the body
The Cell Cycle
Regulate cell growth and division
Gap 0 Phase (G 0)
Not part of cell cycle. Cells enter when thy are not actively dividing. Cell types are often nerve and muscle cells
Gap 1 Phase (G 1): Active Growth
Cells are active and growing. Not ready for division. Majority of cell life spent in this phase. Cells must pass checkpoint to start division process
S Phase (S): Synthesis
cells replicate their entire genomes in preparation for division, so that each
daughter cell will receive a full copy
Gap 2 Phase (G 2): Cell Growth
last chance for cells to grow before division. DNA is checked before dividing. The total amount of cytoplasm, as well as the size of organelles like the Golgi apparatus, increases during this growth phase
Mitosis (M): Cell Division
protein synthesis is halted, since the DNA must be carefully packaged in preparation of division. The endoplasmic reticulum, cytoskeleton, and other organelles are all reorganized, and the
nucleus dissolves. Once the chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell, the organelles reform.
Mitosis concludes with cytokinesis, when the cell is finally divided into two separate daughter cell
Interphase
The cell prepares for cell division while undergoing normal growth processes. Interphase has three stages: G1, S, and G2.
Prophase
The first phase of mitosis, where chromosomes condense and centrosomes form a spindle
Prometaphase
The nuclear envelope breaks down
Metaphase
The nucleus dissolves, chromosomes condense, and move to the center of the cell.
Anaphase
Chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite ends of the cell by spindle fibres
Telophase
The final phase of mitosis, where the replicated chromosomes are separated and pulled to opposite ends of the pole
Cytokinesis
The process that completes cell division by separating the cytoplasm of the original cell to create two genetically identical daughter cells
Stem Cells
specialized cells that can divide to produce new stem cells. This process is called self renewal, and it can happen over several cell cycles. Stem cells are found in tissues throughout our
bodies.
Progenitor Cells
Stems cells may differentiate into progenitor cells through asymmetric ( two daughter
cells arising from mitosis will be genetically identical, but their gene expression will be different) cell division. Progenitor cells have the potential to divide and differentiate into many other cell types.
Differentiation
Progenitor cells divide to replace specialized cells that are damaged or lost, and must commit to only
one differentiated cell type. They cannot de differentiate back into stem cells
Tissue Renewal
Certain tissues are continuously dividing to replace dead or sloughed-off cells in a process known as tissue renewal. Examples of these tissues include blood cells, skin cells, and cells lining the gut. Their
stem cells are constantly proliferating to replace these cells
Necrosis
Dysregulated cell death caused by a severe lack of resources necessary for life, like oxygen, or due to severe trauma like freezing or physical injury.
Necrosis results in the release of harmful chemicals like reactive oxygen species (R O S) and enzymes, which cause inflammation and damage to the surrounding tissue
Apoptosis
Regulated cell death where the cell breaks down in a controlled manner, and the
body is able to dispose of released cell components without inducing inflammation.
Apoptosis also occurs frequently in the natural developmental process, when a fetus loses webbing
between its fingers inside the womb
