Module 1 Intro, Cell Comp & Function, Communication, Transport etc. Flashcards
the study of the body’s response to altered function or disease
Pathophysiology
“disease,” and is the study of the structural and functional changes that occur in cells, tissues, and organs of the body as a result of disease processes.
Pathology
the study of body function
Physiology
an illness leading to abnormal physiological function of an organ, body structure, or an entire system
Disease
the causes of a disease
Etiologic Factors
List Etiologic factors
physical forces
chemical agents
biologic agents
genetic predisposition
nutritional excesses or deficiencies
Give an example of Etiologic factors for physical forces
trauma, burns, radiation
Give an example of Etiologic factors for chemical agents
poisons, alcohol
Give an example of Etiologic factors for biologic agents
bacteria, viruses
predispose someone to a given disease
Risk factors
What are the 2 categories of Risk factors & what do they mean?
Congenital = present at birth
Acquired = occur after birth
the development of a disease process
Pathogenesis
At what level does pathogenesis occur?
at the cellular & tissue level
the structure of cells or tissues
Morphology
the study of cells at the tissue level
Histology
a pathologic or traumatic injury of an organ or tissue
lesion
the ways a disease presents itself
Clinical Manifestations
How can you obtain clinical manifestations?
it can be seen
heard through physical examination
and taking patient history
What terms are used to describe the changes that coincide with a disease?
signs & symptoms
an objective manifestation that can be seen and/or measured by the observer
Sign
a subjective complaint as told by the person experiencing them
Symptom
What’s an example of a symptom?
the experience of pain, difficulty breathing, sensation of dizziness
What’s an example of a clinical sign?
fever, edema of an extremity or joint, changes in pupil size, or heightened/diminished reflexes
a group of multiple signs and symptoms occurring together
Syndrome
potential adverse effects of a disease and/or treatment
Complications
lesions or impairments that follow or are caused by a particular disease
Sequela
the process of identifying the cause of a given health problem or disease
Diagnosis
List some the diagnostic process
a careful and thorough patient history, physical examination (PE), and sometimes diagnostic testing
How is confirmation of a diagnosis made?
through the use of laboratory tests and appropriate imaging techniques including X-ray, MRI, and computed tomography (CT) scans etc.
statistically determined from test results obtained from a select sample of the population
“normal” value for a lab test
What are the lab parameters?
reliability, validity, sensitivity, and specificity of the measurement
how a tool measures what it is intended to measure
Validity
the likelihood of the same result occurring with repeated testing
Reliability
the proportion of people with a disease who test positive for that disease
Sensitivity
people without the disease who test negative for that disease
Specificity
Which is considered a “true-positive” result?
a) normal
b) validity
c) reliability
d) sensitivity
e) specificity
d) sensitivity
Which is considered a “true-negative” result?
a) normal
b) validity
c) reliability
d) sensitivity
e) specificity
e) specificity
the ability of a test result or observation to predict the presence of a given disease or condition
Predictive value
What is a positive predictive value?
the proportion of true-positive results that occurs in a given population
What is a negative predictive value?
the true negatives in a given population
Predictive values rely on what? (list all that apply)
a) normal
b) validity
c) reliability
d) sensitivity
e) specificity
d & e (sensitivity & specificity)
the development of a disease
clinical course
What are the categories for clinical course?
1) acute,
2) chronic
3) subacute
somewhat severe, but self-limiting
acute disorder
long-term, usually continuous, with exacerbations of symptoms and remissions
chronic disease
in between the two, not as severe or prolonged as acute or chronic
subacute disease
the study of disease occurrence in human populations
Epidemiology
Name somethings epidemiology tracks
It tracks age, race, dietary habits, lifestyle, or geographic location.
a measurement used to predict whether a disease is on the rise or in decline
Disease frequency
What is a disease case?
it can either be an existing case or the number of new episodes of an illness
What 2 things that help measure disease frequency?
Prevalence & Incidence
What is the number of people with the disease in a population in a given time?
Prevalence
How is prevalence calculated?
by dividing the number of existing cases by the current population
What is the number of new cases in a population at risk during a specified time?
Incidence
How is incidence determined?
by dividing the number of new cases of a disease by the population at risk for getting the disease in a time frame
How are incidence and prevalence reported as?
rates – cases per 100 or cases per 100,000
What is the difference between incidence and prevalence?
Incidence is the number of new cases in a population at risk during a specified time. Prevalence is the number of people with the disease in a population in a given time.
What is the effect of an illness on one’s life called?
Morbidity
What statistics deal with the cause of death in a population called?
Mortality
What is the progression of that particular disease when no treatment is provided called?
The natural history of a disease
What does the natural history of a disease do?
Information regarding the natural history of a disease guides the formulation of effective treatment plans as well as the development of preventative measures
What is the predicted outcome and likelihood of recovery from a disease called?
Prognosis
What 3 ways is disease prevention categorized?
1) primary
2) secondary
3) tertiary prevention
What is Primary prevention do?
attempts to eliminate risk factors in order to prevent disease from occurring
What’s an example of primary prevention?
-daily multi-vitamin to prevent nutritional deficiencies
-vaccinating children to prevent disease
-having a yearly wellness check up with your primary care physician
etc.
What is Secondary prevention do?
aims to detect and treat disease early, usually while the disease is asymptomatic and curable
What’s an example of secondary prevention?
-going to the doctor for an annual Pap smear to detect early cervical cancer
-colonoscopy screenings beginning at a certain age for all and earlier if it runs in one’s family
- education to promote smoking cessation, or monitoring blood pressure and cholesterol levels through yearly wellness exams
What is Tertiary prevention do?
occurs after a diagnosis has been made, and clinical intervention is needed to reduce complications and/or deterioration
What’s an example of tertiary prevention?
the use of prescribed medication after a heart attack to reduce the risk of a future event or death
the conscientious reliance on current best, scientific evidence in making decisions regarding the care of individual patients
Evidence-based practice
What’s the point for Evidence-based practice?
This is to counteract “the way things have always been done,” and to practice based on clinical research findings.
Clinical practice guidelines are algorithms and written directives aimed to inform practitioners on how to best deliver health care in certain circumstances.
What is the smallest functional unit of life?
the cell
Cells that share similar functions are organized into what?
tissues
List the 3 primary structures that are considered the functional components of eukaryotic cells
1) the nucleus
2) the cytoplasm
3) the plasma membrane
What is the command center of the cell and contains hereditary material in the form of DNA and RNA?
nucleus
it’s essential for the life of the cell. Its genes encode information necessary for protein synthesis
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
What 3 types of houses does the nucleus house of ribonucleic acid?
1) messenger RNA (mRNA)
2) ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
3) transfer RNA (tRNA)
What moves to the cytoplasm and carry out the synthesis of proteins?
ribonucleic acids
What is the complex structure of DNA-associated proteins contained in the nuclear matrix called?
Chromatin
Evidence suggesting that an alteration in WHAT along with DNA hypermethylation, leads to the progression of neoplasms
chromatin
Where can the nucleolus be found?
inside the nucleus
It is here that rRNA is processed and assembled into ribosomes
nucleolus
What are nucleoli comprised of?
chromosomes; each containing part of the genetic code
How many different chromosomes is nucleoli comprised of?
5
What surrounds the nucleus and contains two nuclear membranes?
nuclear envelope
What does the nuclear envelope do?
Certain materials will move in both directions through its nuclear pores
What kind of materials can move in both directions through the nuclear envelope?
fluids, electrolytes, RNA, proteins, and hormones
Where are most cellular functions carried out?
in the cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a solution containing what?
water, electrolytes, proteins, fats, and glycogen molecules
What 5 organelles are found within the cytoplasm?
1) the ribosomes
2) the ER
3) the Golgi complex
4) the mitochondria
5) the lysosomes
What is the site of protein synthesis in the cell?
ribosomes
What is an extensive system of interconnected membranes and flat vesicles that connect various parts of the cell?
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
It functions as a transportation system for substances throughout the cell
endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
What can the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) be subdivided into?
the rough & smooth ER
What carries ribosomes and functions to synthesize lysosomal enzymes?
rough ER
Where are lipids, lipoproteins, and steroid hormones are made?
smooth ER
Does the smooth ER carry ribosomes?
no
Digestive enzymes from the pancreas and plasma proteins from the liver cells are both made in the rough ER or smooth ER?
rough ER
What has enzymes that synthesize lipid molecules, regulate intracellular calcium, and metabolize and detoxify certain hormones and drugs? The rough or smooth ER?
smooth ER
T/F If proteins accumulate faster than they can be processed, the ER can become damaged. If the cell cannot slow down protein production to a point where homeostasis is restored, inflammation and cell death can occur.
TRUE
What are some diseases have been linked to damaged ER?
inflammatory bowel disease, myositis, and a genetic form of diabetes mellitus.
What takes the substances produced in the ER, modify them, and package them into secretory granules or vesicles?
Golgi apparatus/Golgi complex
What is the Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex composed of?
stacks of thin, flattened vesicles or sacs
What serves as the digestive capacity of the cell?
lysosomes
How does lysosomes digest and what?
Their small sacs contain powerful hydrolytic enzymes that can break down cell excess, worn cellular components, and foreign substances
What happens when a lysosome is in a diseased state?
it results in the inability to digest certain cellular substances which then leads to a potentially toxic accumulation within the cell
When fully functional, what vital role do lysosomes play?
in the normal metabolism of certain substances
What 2 ways do lysosomes break down phagocytosed material?
heterophagy or autophagy
What is heterophagy?
digestion of a substance phagocytosed from outside of the cell
How does heterophagy work?
The cell membrane folds inward taking the external materials into the cell to form a phagosome.
What cells use heterophagy (this type of phagocytosis)?
Neutrophils & macrophages
Where are neutrophils & macrophages found?
white blood cells
What is autophagy?
the digestion of damaged cellular organelles
How does autophagy work?
Secondary lysosomes can break down most proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
Where is autophagy best seen in?
cells undergoing atrophy
What happens to those they (secondary lysosomes that use autophagy) can’t break down?
remains in the cytoplasm as residual bodies and leave the cell via exocytosis.
What is an aid in the control of free radicals?
peroxisomes
Are peroxisomes larger or smaller than lysosomes?
smaller
What would happen if peroxisomes didn’t do their job?
these highly unstable chemical compounds would damage other cytoplasmic molecules
What else do peroxisomes do?
They break down hydrogen peroxide to water, long-chain fatty acids, and help in the formation of bile acids.
What small organelles are made of protein complexes that are also involved in the breakdown of proteins?
proteasomes
What do proteasomes target?
mis-formed proteins or polypeptide chains that do not meet quality control of the cell
What transforms organic compounds (energy in food) into cellular energy?
mitochondria
What is the process called when organic compounds (energy in food) into cellular energy?
cellular respiration (AKA aerobi metabolism)
What does cellular respiration need in order to work?
oxygen
What is ATP (adenosine triphosphate) used for?
to fuel cellular activities
Do mitochondria play a role in apoptosis or programmed cell death?
yes
What happens if apoptosis isn’t appropriately regulated (damaged or malfunctioning cells are not removed)?
disease states will occur
What diseases is apoptosis often seen in?
cancers where cells are allowed to abnormally divide due to low rate of apoptosis
Where does a high rate of apoptosis occur?
in degenerative disease processes
What is a network of microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and thick filaments which work together to control cell shape and movement?
cytoskeleton
What are microtubules made of?
subunits called tubulin
What do the subunits of microtubules do?
they can disassemble in one location and reassemble in another
What are the 3 functions of microtubules’s subunits?
1) the maintenance of cell form
2) intracellular transport
3) the formation of cellular structures such as centrioles, basal bodies, cilia, and flagella
What are centrioles & basal bodies made of?
they are structurally identical organelles made of microtubules
