Module 1: History & Methodology Flashcards
What is cognition?
The set of processes/ cognitive functions that:
(1) perceive and process internal and external stimuli,
(2) store and retrieve information,
(3) decide upon and execute actions to achieve goals.
Who was William James and why is he influential in the field of cognitive neuroscience?
Influential psychologist-philosopher who wrote the highly acclaimed book “Principles of Psychology” in 1890. In it, he introduced/ popularized many concepts that remain highly relevant today (inc. associationism, functionalism, and stream of consciousness). Furthermore, he helped establish psychology as a legitimate scientific field
What is associationism (James)?
The idea that mental events are related to one another through association, forming a network of connections that can be activated by a stimulus.
How are mental events related in associationism?
Mental events are related through association - events/ ideas become linked based on experience & context (ex. contiguity, similarity, contrast, frequency).
How are memories activated in associationism?
Stimulus triggers the activation of a mental event; activation spreads to associated mental events (through the network)
Who was Herman Ebbinghaus and why is he influential in cognitive neuroscience?
German psychologist who pioneered experimental psychology.
What was the nonsense syllable learning task, and how did Ebbinghaus use it in his research?
The nonsense syllable task is a learning task invented by Ebbinghaus in which participants have to memorize a list of meaningless syllables (ex. ZUF). Ebbinhaus used it to study memory consolidation, retrieval, and relearning.
What is free recall and why is it important in the study of memory?
Free recall refers to the ability to recall information from memory without any aid or prompting. It is important in the study of memory because it provides a measure of how well information is stored and retrieved from memory.
Name the 4 basic principles that Ebbinghaus discovered about memory.
- Learning curve
- Forgetting curve
- Distributed vs massed practice
- Savings
Describe Ebbinhaus’ learning curve.
- Asymptomatic shape
- Learning is rapid at first but then stabilizes
Describe Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.
- Exponential shape
- Forgetting is rapid at first but then stabilizes
What is the difference between distributed and massed practice?
In distributed practice learning is spread out, with breaks between study sessions, it is more effective for long-term memory. In massed practice, learning occurs in a concentrated session with no breaks, it is more effective for rapid recall.
What is savings (Ebbinghaus) and how does it relate to memory?
Savings refers to the time & effort saved during later learning sessions compared to the initial session. In relation to the study of memory, Ebbinghaus found that relearning a word list becomes easier every time it is studied, suggesting that memories are consolidated and stored more efficiently over time.
Who was Ivan Pavlov and why is he important?
Behaviorist whose discovery of classical conditioning helped shape behaviorism.
What is classical conditioning?
A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a significant stimulus and elicits a similar response.
How did Pavlov use classical conditioning in his research?
Pavlov used classical conditioning in his research by systematically co-presenting a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (significant stimulus) to dogs. After many pairings, presenting the bell alone led to the dogs salivating, even in the absence of food.
What is the process of extinction learning, and how does it relate to classical conditioning?
Extinction learning is the process of overwriting classical conditioning; in other words, the conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus, weakening the association between the 2 and eventually leading to the extinction of the learned response.
What is instrumental/operant conditioning?
Type of conditioning where a subject learns that a certain action leads to a positive/ negative outcome (learning occurs as a result of a behavior and the person’s association of those consequences)
What is the law of effect?
A principle in instrumental/ operant conditioning that states that behaviors that lead to positive outcomes are strengthened, while behaviors that lead to negative outcomes are weakened
How does the law of effect relate to instrumental/ operant conditioning?
It explains how behavior can be modified by changing the consequences that follow it
What is a Skinner box?
An operant learning environment for rats. Consists of a chamber with a lever/ button that rats can press to receive a reward (e.g. food pellet) and other punishment devices
How is a Skinner box used to study operant conditioning?
By manipulating the rewards and punishments following the rat’s behavior
What are variable rewards and what are they used for?
A type of reinforcement schedule in which rewards are given on an unpredictable schedule. They are used to control the rate and pattern of operant behavior.
What is the main message of Skinner’s book, “Beyond Freedom and Dignity”?
Consciousness and free will are illusions, everything is stimulus-response
Define cognitive science.
The scientific discipline that seeks to understand and model the information processing associated with cognitive functions.
What is the main difference between behaviorism and cognitivism?
Behaviorism assumes that behavior is input-output because it focuses on the relationship between stimuli and responses. Cognitivism assumes that internal states and models that affect behavior.
What is the nervous system, and why is it essential for cognitive processes?
A network of nerve cells throughout the body that plays a critical role in cognitive processes. They receive, process, and transmit information, which allows us to perceive and respond to our environment
What is cognitive neuroscience and what is its goal?
Field of study defined by the intersection of cognitive science and neuroscience. It aims to build biologically-grounded models of cognitive function.
What are neural correlates and why are they important?
Maps between brain regions and psychological processes. They are important because they help researchers understand how different parts of the brain are involved in specific cognitive functions and how they work together to support complex behaviors.
What is Golgi’s reticular theory?
Theory that states that all neurons in the brain and spinal cord form a continuous information network
