Module 1: History & Methodology Flashcards
What is cognition?
The set of processes/ cognitive functions that:
(1) perceive and process internal and external stimuli,
(2) store and retrieve information,
(3) decide upon and execute actions to achieve goals.
Who was William James and why is he influential in the field of cognitive neuroscience?
Influential psychologist-philosopher who wrote the highly acclaimed book “Principles of Psychology” in 1890. In it, he introduced/ popularized many concepts that remain highly relevant today (inc. associationism, functionalism, and stream of consciousness). Furthermore, he helped establish psychology as a legitimate scientific field
What is associationism (James)?
The idea that mental events are related to one another through association, forming a network of connections that can be activated by a stimulus.
How are mental events related in associationism?
Mental events are related through association - events/ ideas become linked based on experience & context (ex. contiguity, similarity, contrast, frequency).
How are memories activated in associationism?
Stimulus triggers the activation of a mental event; activation spreads to associated mental events (through the network)
Who was Herman Ebbinghaus and why is he influential in cognitive neuroscience?
German psychologist who pioneered experimental psychology.
What was the nonsense syllable learning task, and how did Ebbinghaus use it in his research?
The nonsense syllable task is a learning task invented by Ebbinghaus in which participants have to memorize a list of meaningless syllables (ex. ZUF). Ebbinhaus used it to study memory consolidation, retrieval, and relearning.
What is free recall and why is it important in the study of memory?
Free recall refers to the ability to recall information from memory without any aid or prompting. It is important in the study of memory because it provides a measure of how well information is stored and retrieved from memory.
Name the 4 basic principles that Ebbinghaus discovered about memory.
- Learning curve
- Forgetting curve
- Distributed vs massed practice
- Savings
Describe Ebbinhaus’ learning curve.
- Asymptomatic shape
- Learning is rapid at first but then stabilizes
Describe Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.
- Exponential shape
- Forgetting is rapid at first but then stabilizes
What is the difference between distributed and massed practice?
In distributed practice learning is spread out, with breaks between study sessions, it is more effective for long-term memory. In massed practice, learning occurs in a concentrated session with no breaks, it is more effective for rapid recall.
What is savings (Ebbinghaus) and how does it relate to memory?
Savings refers to the time & effort saved during later learning sessions compared to the initial session. In relation to the study of memory, Ebbinghaus found that relearning a word list becomes easier every time it is studied, suggesting that memories are consolidated and stored more efficiently over time.
Who was Ivan Pavlov and why is he important?
Behaviorist whose discovery of classical conditioning helped shape behaviorism.
What is classical conditioning?
A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a significant stimulus and elicits a similar response.
How did Pavlov use classical conditioning in his research?
Pavlov used classical conditioning in his research by systematically co-presenting a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (significant stimulus) to dogs. After many pairings, presenting the bell alone led to the dogs salivating, even in the absence of food.
What is the process of extinction learning, and how does it relate to classical conditioning?
Extinction learning is the process of overwriting classical conditioning; in other words, the conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by the unconditioned stimulus, weakening the association between the 2 and eventually leading to the extinction of the learned response.
What is instrumental/operant conditioning?
Type of conditioning where a subject learns that a certain action leads to a positive/ negative outcome (learning occurs as a result of a behavior and the person’s association of those consequences)
What is the law of effect?
A principle in instrumental/ operant conditioning that states that behaviors that lead to positive outcomes are strengthened, while behaviors that lead to negative outcomes are weakened
How does the law of effect relate to instrumental/ operant conditioning?
It explains how behavior can be modified by changing the consequences that follow it
What is a Skinner box?
An operant learning environment for rats. Consists of a chamber with a lever/ button that rats can press to receive a reward (e.g. food pellet) and other punishment devices
How is a Skinner box used to study operant conditioning?
By manipulating the rewards and punishments following the rat’s behavior
What are variable rewards and what are they used for?
A type of reinforcement schedule in which rewards are given on an unpredictable schedule. They are used to control the rate and pattern of operant behavior.
What is the main message of Skinner’s book, “Beyond Freedom and Dignity”?
Consciousness and free will are illusions, everything is stimulus-response
Define cognitive science.
The scientific discipline that seeks to understand and model the information processing associated with cognitive functions.
What is the main difference between behaviorism and cognitivism?
Behaviorism assumes that behavior is input-output because it focuses on the relationship between stimuli and responses. Cognitivism assumes that internal states and models that affect behavior.
What is the nervous system, and why is it essential for cognitive processes?
A network of nerve cells throughout the body that plays a critical role in cognitive processes. They receive, process, and transmit information, which allows us to perceive and respond to our environment
What is cognitive neuroscience and what is its goal?
Field of study defined by the intersection of cognitive science and neuroscience. It aims to build biologically-grounded models of cognitive function.
What are neural correlates and why are they important?
Maps between brain regions and psychological processes. They are important because they help researchers understand how different parts of the brain are involved in specific cognitive functions and how they work together to support complex behaviors.
What is Golgi’s reticular theory?
Theory that states that all neurons in the brain and spinal cord form a continuous information network
What is Cajal’s neuron doctrine?
Neuron doctrine states that the nervous system is made up of discrete individual cells.
What is “localization of function”?
It is the idea that different regions are responsible for different cognitive functions.
How did Golgi and Cajal’s work help discover “localization of function”?
Using Golgi straining, Cajal was able to visualize individual neurons in the brain and map out their connections. He found different patterns for neurons in different regions of the brain, suggesting they might have different functions.
What is phrenology?
A discredited pseudoscience that claimed that the size and shape of the human skull could reveal a person’s character and mental abilities
What is a homunculus?
A diagram of the body mapped onto the brain’s sensory and motor complex
What did Wilder Penfield discover through his experiments and how?
Somatotopic relationships (mappings of the body onto specific brain regions) by using microstimulations of the cerebral cortex to elicit sensations and movements in specific parts of the body (in patients undergoing neurosurgery for epilepsy)
What are S1 and S2?
Regions of the brain’s somatosensory cortex involved in processing sensory information from the body
What are M1 and M2?
Regions of the brain’s motor complex that are involved in controlling movements of the body
Why is it necessary to use multiple research methods in neuroscience?
Because no single technique can provide a complete account of brain function.
What are the 2 critical advantages of using multiple research methods in neuroscience?
Convergence and complementarity
What is convergence?
Combining the results from multiple methods to illustrate a single theoretical concept.
What is the benefit of observing the same result across a range of experimental tasks?
A stronger inference can be drawn; more evidence supports the conclusion.
What is a meta-analysis?
A method for combining information across multiple studies; “analysis of analyses”
What is the benefit of using a meta-analysis in cognitive neuroscience?
In cognitive neuroscience, small samples are common. By using meta-analysis, the sample size increases, and averages out the variability of the studies (only leaving commonalities between them), making the analysis more robust across multiple contexts.
List the 3 primary approaches in meta-analysis.
- Qualitative meta-analysis
- Quantitative meta-analysis
- Semantic meta-analysis
Explain qualitative meta-analysis.
The research team identifies a comprehensive set of studies on the same cognitive function and looks for similarities in their results (synthesis of common themes/ patterns/ relationships)
Explain quantitative meta-analysis.
The research team combines multiple studies into a single statistical framework.
Explain semantic meta-analysis.
The research team combines studies according to the similarity in their underlying concepts
What is the difference between semantic and qualitative meta-analysis?
Qualitative meta-analysis involves a synthesis of qualitative data obtained in the studies, semantic meta-analysis involves a quantitative analysis of the similarity of terms/ concepts used in the studies.
What is complementarity?
Combining the results from multiple methods provides a unique & robust set of information about the brain & behavior
What are the 2 main ways to study cognition in the brain?
Brain perturbation and neuromonitoring
Name 3 methods of the brain perturbation approach.
- Brain lesions
- Intracranial stimulation
- Pharmacological stimulation
Name 5 methods of the neuromonitoring approach.
- Electrical recording of single units
- Electrical field recordings
- Magnetic field recordings
- Functional imaging
What is the brain perturbation approach?
A way to study the brain where the brain is perturbed by a clinical disorder or directly
What is the neuromonitoring approach?
A way to study the brain where the experimenter manipulates cognitive processes in an experimental task
What is the main trade-off when it comes to the scales in the brain?
Temporal vs spatial resolution
What types of conclusions can be drawn from brain lesion studies?
Mappings of function to brain region
What is meant by downstream damage and how can it affect brain lesion studies?
Downstream damage refers to the fact that damage to one region may also affect other areas in the brain, so changes in cognitive function are not always due to damage in the primary lesion area
What are “average” lesion maps?
Statistical representations of the distribution of brain damage in a group of patients that have experienced similar types of brain damage
Why are “average” lesion maps important?
They help identify brain regions commonly affected by a specific type of damage irrespective of individual variation and possible downstream damage
What problem may arise in the interpretation of brain lesion studies?
Diaschisis (if one area of the brain is lesioned, other areas f the brain innervated by the lesioned area, may also cease to function normally. This may lead to the wrong attribution of the lost functionality to the lesion area rather than the downstream area.
Define associations and dissociations. (COME BACK HERE)
- Associations: relationships between different brain regions and their contribution to specific cognitive processes
- Dissociations: when damage to a specific brain area results in impaired performance in one cognitive function
What is the difference between human and animal lesion studies?
In human lesion studies, the goal is to find a correlational effect, in animal lesion studies, the goal is to find a causal effect
What is the disadvantage of animal lesion studies compared to human lesion studies?
Training and assessing animals carrying out some cognitive task is more difficult than in humans
Are animal lesion studies sensitive to downstream effects and damage to fiber tracts?
Yes
What are disconnecting studies?
An approach in animal lesion studies where the source and target structures are on opposite sides of the brain, or along the white matter tracts. The goal is to disturb communication between these 2 structures and see how it affects behavior/
What is temporal inactivation?
An approach in animal lesion studies where the activity of specific brain regions is temporarily inhibited to study their role in behavior.
What is pharmacological perturbation?
Use of drugs to manipulate the activity of neurons or neural circuits to study the resulting changes in cognitive function
Name and define the 2 main types of drugs.
- Agonist: stimulates receptors (mimics natural neurotransmitter/ hormone)
- Antagonist: blocks receptors (blocks natural neurotransmitters/ hormones)
What are the 2 main methods of study in pharmacological perturbation?
- Examining the effects of drugs on the brain & its function in individuals with specific diseases (ex. alcohol dependence, cocaine addiction)
- Controlled perturbation where drugs are administered acutely and its effects are monitored
What is the disadvantage of pharmacological perturbation?
Lack of specificity of their effects, meaning that even if a drug is designed to target specific neurotransmitter systems, the interconnectivity of the brain makes it so that different neurotransmitters can have widespread effects
What are the 3 types of intracranial electrical/ magnetic stimulation (perturbation)?
- Electrical activation or inhibition of neurons
- Optogenetic modulation
- Deep Brain Stimulation
What is optogenetic modulation and how does it work? (COME BACK TO IT)
Optogenetic modulation is the use of light to control neuron activity.
What is Deep Brain Stimulation?
When electrodes are implanted into specific brain areas and are used to generate electrical stimulation
What are the 2 types of extracranial electrical/ magnetic stimulation (perturbation)?
- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
- Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
