Module 1 - Chapter 3 Flashcards
Descriptive Research
the exploration and description of phenomena in real-life situations.
What is the purpose of a descriptive research?
Its purpose is to provide an accurate account of characteristics of particular individuals, situations, or groups using numbers
How are Quantitative descriptive studies conducted?
usually conducted with large numbers of subjects or study participants, in natural settings, with no manipulation of the situation.
What are the researchers trying to describe with descriptive research?
- researchers describe what exists to increase knowledge on a phenomenon.
- They determine the frequency with which a phenomenon occurs, categorize the attributes of a phenomenon and measure the relative amount of each category, and determine quantity when a phenomenon can be characterized by amount.
-In descriptive studies, researchers also often compare the results across different groups and/or time.
What are the underlying questions in a descriptive research?
To what extent does this variable exist? What are the principal types of this variable? What are the relative amounts of this variable? Are there differences between groups on this variable? Do individuals change over time regarding this variable?
Correlational research
involves the systematic investigation of relationships between or among variables.
What is the intent of a correlational study?
= The intent of correlational studies is either to explain the nature of relationships or to allow prediction, all in the context of the real world.
-the relationships revealed in correlation studies are not cause-and-effect relationships, but associations
What associations identified by correlational studies identifies what?
hypotheses to guide quasi-experimental and experimental studies that do focus on cause-and-effect relationships
Give example research questions for correlational research?
What is the nature of the relationship between these two variables? To what extent do each of these variables contribute to this outcome? How well does this theory explain this phenomenon? What are the risk factors for this health condition?
What does correlational analysis allow?
Correlational analysis allows the researcher to determine the degree or strength of the relationship and the type (positive or negative) of relationship.
positive relationship
indicates that the variables vary together; that is, both variables increase or decrease together.
negative relationship
indicates that the variables vary in opposite directions; thus as one variable increases, the other will decrease.
quasi-experimental research
purpose of this research is the objective and systematic study of cause-and-effect relationships.
How are cause and effect examined?
by using numerical means to determine whether manipulating one variable affects other variables.
What are involved in these studies (correlational)?
These studies involve implementing an intervention (the manipulated variable) and examining the effects of this intervention using selected methods of measurement
What’s the difference between Quasi-experimental vs experimental studies
- level of control achieved by researchers.
Experimental research
objective, systematic, and highly controlled investigation of cause-and-effect relationships
Why is experimental the most powerful quantitative method
because of the rigorous control of variables.
independent variable
manipulated variable (the intervention)
dependent variables or outcomes
variables subjected to controlled manipulation of the independent
What is a principle of quantitative research?
the notion that measurement is never 100% accurate - this means that 1 test of hypothesis is never sufficient
replication study
the same hypothesis should be retested in a subsequent study
2 types of quantitative research
Basic and applied
Basic research
aims to increase knowledge or understanding of the “fundamental aspects of phenomena and of observable facts without specific application… in mind [emphasis added]”
Purpose of applied research
purpose of applied research in the health sciences is to create knowledge that will improve health, lengthen life, and decrease illness and disability
Applied research
- this type of research is conducted to solve real-life problems, to make decisions, or to predict or control outcomes in real-life practice situations.
- also pertains when theory is tested and validated for its usefulness in nursing practice
Describe A rigorously conducted quantitative study
study has a tightly controlled study design, a representative sample, and precise measuring tools.
What does the strategy substraction consist of
(1) the constructs and concepts of the phenomenon to be studied, (2) their relationships among each other, (3) their corresponding variables, and (4) the measurement method for each variable
Constructs
Concepts at very high levels of abstraction that have general meanings.
Concepts
Terms that abstractly describe and name objects or phenomena, thus providing them with a separate identity or meaning.
Variables
Qualities, properties, or characteristics of persons, things, or situations that change or vary and are manipulated, measured, or controlled in research.
Another aspect of rigor - This aspect encompasses accuracy, detail, and order.
Precision
Control
involves the imposing of rules by researchers to decrease the possibility of error, thereby increasing the probability that the study’s findings are an accurate reflection of reality
design.
The rules used to achieve control in research
extraneous variable
not the focus of a study but can make the independent variable appear more powerful or less powerful than it really is
internal validity
The extent to which a researcher controls for the effects of extraneous variables in the study’s design
setting
location in which a study is conducted.
What are the 3 common settings for conducting research
natural, partially controlled, and highly controlled
Natural setting
uncontrolled real-life situation or environment.
What does it mean when a researcher is conducting a study in a natural setting?
Conducting a study in a natural setting means that the researcher does not manipulate or change the environment for the study.
Give examples of study done in a natural setting
Descriptive and correlational studies
partially controlled setting
natural setting that the researcher has manipulated or modified in some way to limit the effects of extraneous variables on the findings.
highly controlled setting
artificially constructed environment developed for the sole purpose of conducting research.
Sampling
process of selecting participants who are representative of the population being studied.
what does random sampling prevent
bias
bias
slanting of findings away from what is true or accurate
attrition
loss of study subjects
What does a study intervention need to be:
(1) clearly and precisely developed, (2) consistently implemented, and (3) examined for effectiveness through quality measurement of the dependent variables
Intervention fidelity
The detailed development of a quality intervention and the consistent implementation of this intervention
What does a quantitative research process consist of?
conceptualizing a research project, planning and implementing that project, and communicating the findings.
What are the 12 steps of quantitative research?
- Generating further research
- Research problem and purpose
- Review of relevant literature
- Study framework
- Research objectives, questions or hypotheses
- Study variables
- Study design
- Population and sample
- Measurement methods
- Data collection
- Data analysis
- Discussion or research outcomes
research problem
an area in which there is a gap in nursing’s knowledge base.
problem statement
includes a brief summary (only a few sentences) of the current state of knowledge about a phenomenon for a given population and then a sentence that identifies the knowledge gap
research purpose
is generated from the problem (see Fig. 3.2) and identifies the specific focus or goal of the study.
review of relevant literature
conducted to discover the most recent and most important information about a particular phenomenon and to identify any knowledge gaps that exist
Relevant literature
efers to those sources that are highly pertinent or highly important in providing the in-depth knowledge needed to study a selected problem and purpose.
What are researchers able to do by reviewing relevant studies?
researchers are able to clarify (1) which problems have been investigated, (2) which require further investigation or replication, and (3) which have not been investigated.
- literature review can direct researchers in designing the study and interpreting outcomes
framework
combination of concepts and the connections between them
relational statement
explains the connection between two concepts.
How is theory similar to framework?
Both are abstract, both guide the development of research, and both are tested through quantitative research.
assumption
belief that is accepted as true, without proof and provides the basis for the phenomenon described by a theory
Which study often includes a purpose and objectives or questions.
Correlational studies
What may not be included in a descriptive or correlational study?
Hypotheses
Which will need to have hypotheses to direct the conduct of the studies and the interpretation of findings?
quasi-experimental and experimental studies
conceptual definition
provides a variable with theoretical meaning and is derived from a theorist’s definition of the concept, a concept analysis, or a definition from the expert literature.
operational definition
indicates how a variable will be measured, manipulated, or controlled in a study.
research design
provides a blueprint for maximizing control over factors that could interfere with a study’s desired outcome.
What is the purpose of the descriptive and correlational studies?
improving the precision of measurement, describing what exists, and clarifying relationships that provide a basis of quasi-experimental and experimental studies.
No intervention is administered
pilot study
small-scale investigation conducted preparatory to a subsequent adequately powered trial
Feasibility studies
This can determine whether subjects will actually consent to study participation, how many subjects really are available, how much time is required to gather data on one subject, and how well the instruments work.
population
set of all members of a defined group that serves as the focus of a study
Define and describe elements
- defined group’s members
-The elements share at least one characteristic in common
sample
subset of the accessible population that the researcher selects for participation in a study
Sampling
the process for selecting a group of people or other elements with which to conduct a study
Measurement
is the process of assigning “numbers to objects (or events or situations) in accord with some rule”
Reliability
assesses how consistently the measurement technique measures a concept
validity
extent to which it actually reflects the abstract concept being examined
data collection plan
plan for obtaining the output of the study instruments
data analysis plan
plan for how the data will be managed and which statistical tests will be conducted.
Plans for data analysis are based on what factors?
(1) objectives, questions, or hypotheses (or research purpose, if these are lacking);(2) type and volume of data; and (3) the level of measurement achieved by the research instruments
Data collection
precise, systematic gathering of information relevant to the research purpose of a study.
Data analysis
reduction, organization, and statistical testing of information obtained in the data collection phase.
Interpretation of research outcomes involves what?
(1) examining the results of data analysis, (2) explaining what the results mean in light of current practice and previous research, (3) identifying study limitations, (4) forming conclusions, (5) deciding on the appropriate recommendation for generalization of the findings, (6) considering the implications for nursing’s body of knowledge, and (7) suggesting the direction of further research.
Limitations
aspects of the study that decrease the generalizability of the findings.
These may or may not be due to problems or weaknesses of the study.
What are the different types of limitations
-Construct limitations
-Internal validity limitations
-External validity limitations
-Statistical limitations
Construct limitations
ometimes called theoretical limitations, are failures of logic related to the researcher’s definitions or reasoning, which limit the ability to interpret study findings on the theoretical level, the application level, or both.
Internal validity limitations
amount to incomplete or poor control of important extraneous variables and weaken the logical argument for the study’s findings.
External validity limitations
refer to the actual population to which the study results can legitimately be generalized
Statistical limitations
refer to inadequate or inappropriate statistical conclusions, often based on poor choices by the researcher.
Communicating research findings
involves developing and disseminating a research report to appropriate audiences.
