Module 1 and 2

Question 1

It is the foundational beliefs and ideas that guide how researchers view the world, what they consider to be valid knowledge, and how they go about understanding human experiences.

Answer 1

Philosophical Assumptions

Question 2

In research, this refers to the abstract ideas and beliefs that researchers hold about the world, which guide how they conduct their studies and interpret their findings.

Answer 2

Philosophy

Question 3

It is the use of abstract ideas and beliefs that inform our research.

Answer 3

Philosophy

Question 4

It is the beliefs and ideas that a researcher holds about the nature of reality (ontology), knowledge (epistemology), values (axiology), and how research should be conducted (methodology). These assumptions guide the entire research process, influencing how the researcher understands the world and what they consider valid knowledge.

Answer 4

Philosophical Assumptions

Question 5

It is the framework or blueprint for how the study will be conducted. It includes the overall strategy for integrating the different components of the research to address the research problem. The design is directly related to the researcher’s philosophical assumptions and helps in deciding how to collect and analyze data.

Answer 5

Research Design

Question 6

These are the actual techniques and processes used to gather and analyze data. This could include interviews, surveys, observations, or statistical analysis, depending on the nature of the research. The methods chosen should align with both the research design and the philosophical assumptions to ensure coherence throughout the study.

Answer 6

Specific Methods or Procedures

Question 7

It influence the practice of research and need to be identified. This information will help explain why they chose qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods approaches for their research.

Answer 7

Philosophical Worldview

Question 8

It refer to the underlying beliefs and assumptions that guide how researchers view the world, what they consider to be valid knowledge, and how they conduct their research.

Answer 8

Philosophical Worldviews

Question 9

It is the nature of reality.

Answer 9

Ontology

Question 10

It is what counts as knowledge and how knowledge claims are justified.

Answer 10

Epistemology

Question 11

It is the role of values in research

Answer 11

Axiology

Question 12

It is the process of research.

Answer 12

Methodology

Question 13

This concerns the nature of reality. It asks, “What is the nature of reality?” In research, an ontological assumption might be that reality is multiple and can be seen from different perspectives.

Answer 13

Ontological Assumptions

Question 14

This relates to the nature of knowledge and how knowledge is acquired. It asks, “What counts as knowledge? How are knowledge claims justified? What is the relationship between the researcher and what is being researched?” In this worldview, knowledge is seen as subjective, meaning it is shaped by personal experiences and interpretations. A researcher might obtain knowledge directly from participants, working closely with them to understand their perspectives.

Answer 14

Epistemological Assumptions

Question 15

This involves the role of values in research. It asks, “What is the role of values in research?” Researchers acknowledge that their work is value-laden, meaning that their beliefs, biases, and values influence the research process. They openly discuss these values and how they shape the narrative of the study.

Answer 15

Axiological Assumptions

Question 16

This pertains to the process of research and the language used in research. It asks, “What is the process of research? What is the language of research?” Researchers using this worldview often employ inductive logic, meaning they start with specific details and work towards broader generalizations. They study the topic within its context, use an emerging design (which evolves as the study progresses), and continually revise their research questions based on their experiences in the field.

Answer 16

Methodological Assumptions

Question 17

It is a method of inquiry that seeks to understand how individuals or groups make sense of their experiences, often focusing on social or human problems. It is rooted in the belief that reality is subjective and can be best understood by exploring the meanings people attach to their experiences.

Answer 17

Qualitative Research

Question 18

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers often collect data in the field at the site where participants experience the issue or problem under study. They do not bring individuals into a lab (a contrived situation), nor do they typically send out instruments for individuals to complete, such as in survey research. Instead, qualitative researchers gather up-close information by talking directly to people and seeing them behave within their context.

Answer 18

Natural Setting

Question 19

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers often gather data in the environment where the participants naturally experience the problem being studied. Instead of bringing participants into a controlled environment like a lab or asking them to fill out surveys at home, researchers immerse themselves in the participants’ real-world setting.

Answer 19

Natural Setting

Question 20

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research

The qualitative researchers collect data themselves through examining documents, observing behavior, and interviewing participants. They may use an instrument, but it is one designed by the researcher using open-ended questions. They do not tend to use or rely on questionnaires or instruments developed by other researchers.

Answer 20

Researcher as Key Instrument

Question 21

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research

In qualitative research, the researcher is the primary tool for collecting data. Unlike quantitative research, which often relies on pre-designed questionnaires or standardized instruments, qualitative researchers personally conduct interviews, make observations, and review documents. The questions they ask are usually open-ended, allowing participants to share their experiences and perspectives in their own words.

Answer 21

Researcher as Key Instrument

Question 22

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source. Then they review all of the data and make sense of it, organizing it into categories or themes that cut across all of the data sources.

Answer 22

Multiple Methods

Question 23

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research typically involves the use of multiple data collection methods. Rather than relying on a single source of information, researchers combine interviews, observations, and document analysis to build a comprehensive understanding of the issue. This triangulation of data sources helps ensure the findings are robust and well-rounded.

Answer 23

Multiple Methods

Question 23

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers build their patterns, categories, and themes from the “bottom up” by organizing the data inductively into increasingly more abstract units of information.

Answer 23

Complex Reasoning Through Inductive and Deductive Logic

Question 24

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research Qualitative researchers use both inductive and deductive reasoning to analyze their data. They often start by looking for patterns and themes that emerge from the data (inductive reasoning) and then check these themes against existing theories or literature (deductive reasoning). This back-and-forth process helps them build a detailed and accurate understanding of the research problem.

Answer 24

Complex Reasoning Through Inductive and Deductive Logic

Question 25

It involves researchers working back and forth between the themes and the database until they establish a comprehensive set of themes. It may also involve collaborating with the participants interactively so that they have a chance to shape the themes or abstractions that emerge from the process.

Answer 25

Inductive Process

Question 26

It is when they build themes that are constantly being checked against the data.

Answer 26

Deductive Thinking

Question 27

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research Qualitative research emphasizes understanding the issue from the participants’ perspectives rather than imposing the researcher’s views. This focus on participant meanings allows for a more authentic and diverse representation of experiences and viewpoints.

Answer 27

Participants’ Multiple Perspectives and Meanings

Question 28

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research In the entire qualitative research process, the researchers keep a focus on learning the meaning that the participants hold about the problem or issue, not the meaning that the researchers bring to the research or writers from the literature. The participant meanings further suggest multiple perspectives on a topic and diverse views. This is why a theme developed in a qualitative report should reflect multiple perspectives of the participants in the study.

Answer 28

Participants’ Multiple Perspectives and Meanings

Question 29

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research The research is situated within the context or setting of participants or sites. In order to report the setting in which the problem is being studied, the researcher must seek an understanding of contextual features and their influence on participants’ experiences (e.g., social, political, and historical). This is essential because the particular contexts allow researchers to “understand how events, actions, and meaning are shaped by the unique circumstances in which these occur”.

Answer 29

Context-Dependent

Question 30

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research The research process for qualitative researchers is emergent. This means that the initial plan for research cannot be tightly prescribed and that all phases of the process may change or shift after the researchers enter the field and begin to collect data. For example, the questions may change, the forms of data collection may be altered, and the individuals studied and the sites visited may be modified during the process of conducting the study. The key idea behind qualitative research is to learn about the problem or issue from participants and engage in the best practices to obtain that information.

Answer 30

Emergent Design

Question 31

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research The context in which the research takes place is critical in qualitative research. Understanding the social, cultural, political, and historical background of the participants is essential for interpreting their experiences and behaviors accurately.

Answer 31

Context-Dependent

Question 32

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research The research process for qualitative researchers is emergent. This means that the initial plan for research cannot be tightly prescribed and that all phases of the process may change or shift after the researchers enter the field and begin to collect data. For example, the questions may change, the forms of data collection may be altered, and the individuals studied and the sites visited may be modified during the process of conducting the study. The key idea behind qualitative research is to learn about the problem or issue from participants and engage in the best practices to obtain that information.

Answer 32

Emergent Design

Question 33

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research Qualitative research is often flexible and adaptive. The research design may evolve as the study progresses, with the researcher modifying questions, data collection methods, or even the focus of the study based on what they learn in the field.

Answer 33

Emergent Design

Question 34

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research Researchers “position themselves” in a qualitative research study. This means that researchers convey (i.e., in a method section, in an introduction, or in other places in a study) their background (e.g., work experiences, cultural experiences, history), how it informs their interpretation of the information in a study, and what they have to gain from the study.

Answer 34

Reflexivity

Question 35

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research It involves the researcher reflecting on their own background, beliefs, and biases and how these influence the research process. It’s important for researchers to acknowledge their position in the study and how it might affect their interpretations and interactions with participants.

Answer 35

Reflexivity

Question 36

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research Qualitative researchers try to develop a complex picture of the problem or issue under study. This involves reporting multiple perspectives, identifying the many factors involved in a situation, and generally sketching the larger picture that emerges. Researchers are bound not by cause-and-effect relationships among factors but rather by describing the complex interactions of factors in any situation.

Answer 36

Holistic Account

Question 37

Common Characteristics of Qualitative Research Qualitative researchers aim to develop a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the issue under study. They report multiple perspectives, consider various factors, and describe the complex interactions at play, rather than simply looking for cause-and-effect relationships.

Answer 37

Holistic Account

Question 38

What a Qualitative Study Requires From Us? The investigator spends many hours in the field, collects extensive data, and labors over field issues of trying to gain access and establish rapport. Collaborating with participants takes time yet is important for developing an “insider” perspective.

Answer 38

Commit to Extensive Time in the Field

Question 39

What a Qualitative Study Requires From Us? A qualitative researcher must be prepared to spend a significant amount of time in the field, where the research subjects live, work, or experience the issue being studied. This involves not just collecting data, but also building relationships, gaining trust, and understanding the context from an "insider" perspective

Answer 39

Commit to Extensive Time in the Field

Question 40

What a Qualitative Study Requires From Us? The investigator undertakes the ambitious task of sorting through large amounts of data and reducing them to a few themes or categories. For a multidisciplinary team of qualitative researchers, this task can be shared; for most researchers, it is a lonely, isolated time of pondering and making sense of the data.

Answer 40

Engage in the Complex, Time-Consuming Process of Data Analysis

Question 41

What a Qualitative Study Requires From Us? Qualitative research involves collecting large amounts of data, such as interview transcripts, observations, and field notes. Analyzing this data is a complex, iterative process where the researcher identifies patterns, themes, and categories. This often involves going back and forth between the data and the emerging themes to refine the analysis.

Answer 41

Engage in the Complex, Time-Consuming Process of Data Analysis

Question 42

What a Qualitative Study Requires From Us? The investigator considers what ethical issues might surface during the study and to plan how these issues need to be addressed. Additionally, new issues might emerge, which require attention, while undertaking the study.

Answer 42

Attend to anticipated and developing ethical issues

Question 43

What a Qualitative Study Requires From Us? Ethical considerations are paramount in qualitative research. Researchers must think ahead about potential ethical issues, such as ensuring confidentiality, obtaining informed consent, and addressing any harm that might come to participants. Additionally, new ethical dilemmas can arise during the study, requiring the researcher to adapt and respond appropriately.

Answer 43

Attend to Anticipated and Developing Ethical Issues

Question 44

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study The researcher frames the study within the assumptions and characteristics of the qualitative approach to research. This includes fundamental characteristics such as an evolving design, the presentation of multiple realities, the researcher as an instrument of data collection, and a focus on participants’ views—in short, all of the characteristics mentioned.

Answer 44

Framing the Study within Qualitative Assumptions and Characteristics

Question 45

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study A good qualitative study begins with a clear alignment to the core assumptions and characteristics of qualitative research. This includes an evolving research design that adapts as the study progresses, the presentation of multiple realities as experienced by participants, the researcher acting as the primary instrument of data collection, and a strong emphasis on understanding participants' perspectives.

Answer 45

Framing the Study within Qualitative Assumptions and Characteristics

Question 46

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study This involves more than simply the researcher seeking and obtaining the permission of institutional review committees or boards. It means that the researcher considers and addresses all anticipated and emergent ethical issues in the study.

Answer 46

Conducting an Ethical Study

Question 47

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study Ethical considerations are at the heart of any good qualitative study. Beyond simply obtaining approval from an institutional review board, a researcher must anticipate and address ethical issues throughout the study. This includes ensuring informed consent, maintaining confidentiality, and being responsive to any new ethical dilemmas that arise during the research process.

Answer 47

Conducting an Ethical Study

Question 48

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study The researcher uses an approach to qualitative inquiry such as one of the five approaches (or others) addressed in this book. Use of a recognized approach to research enhances the rigor and sophistication of the research design. It also provides some means to evaluate the qualitative study. Use of an approach means that the researcher identifies and defines the approach, cites studies that employ it, and follows the procedures outlined in the approach.

Answer 48

Using a Recognized Approach to Qualitative Inquiry

Question 49

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study The researcher begins with a single focus or concept being explored. Although examples of qualitative research show a comparison of groups or of factors or themes, as in case study projects or in ethnographies, we like to begin a qualitative study focused on understanding a single concept or idea.

Answer 49

Focusing on a Single Concept or Idea

Question 49

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study A rigorous qualitative study typically follows a recognized approach to qualitative research, such as ethnography, grounded theory, or case study. Using a well-defined approach enhances the study's credibility and provides a framework for data collection, analysis, and interpretation.

Answer 49

Using a Recognized Approach to Qualitative Inquiry

Question 50

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study A strong qualitative study often begins with a single, well-defined concept or idea that serves as the study's focal point. This focus allows the researcher to delve deeply into the topic before exploring broader comparisons or relationships.

Answer 50

Focusing on a Single Concept or Idea

Question 51

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study The researcher employs rigorous data collection procedures. This means that the researcher collects multiple forms of data, creates a summary— perhaps in tabled form—of the forms of data and detail about them and spends adequate time in the field. It is not unusual for qualitative studies to include information about the specific amount of time in the field (e.g., 25 hours observing). We especially like to see unusual forms of qualitative data collection, such as using photographs to elicit responses, sounds, visual materials, or digital text messages.

Answer 51

Focusing on a Single Concept or Idea

Question 52

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study Good qualitative research involves collecting multiple forms of data and spending adequate time in the field. This ensures that the data is rich, diverse, and reflective of the research context. Researchers should also consider using innovative data collection methods, such as photographs, audio recordings, or digital messages, to capture different dimensions of the research topic.

Answer 52

Employing Rigorous Data Collection Procedures

Question 53

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study The researcher includes detailed methods describing a rigorous approach to data collection, data analysis, and report writing. Rigor is seen, for example, when extensive data collection in the field occurs or when the researcher conducts multiple levels of data analysis from the narrow codes or themes to broader interrelated themes to more abstract dimensions. Rigor means, too, that the researcher validates the accuracy of the account using one or more of the procedures for validation, such as member checking, triangulating sources of data, or using a peer or external auditor of the account.

Answer 53

Including Detailed Methods and Ensuring Rigor

Question 54

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study A good qualitative study includes a thorough description of the methods used for data collection, analysis, and report writing. Rigor is demonstrated through extensive data collection, multiple levels of data analysis, and validation procedures like member checking or triangulation.

Answer 54

Including Detailed Methods and Ensuring Rigor

Question 55

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study We like to see the active work of the researcher as he or she moves from particulars to general levels of abstraction. Often, writers present their studies in stages (e.g., the multiple themes that can be combined into larger themes or perspectives) or layer their analysis from the particular to the general.

Answer 55

Analyzing Data Using Multiple Levels of Abstraction

Question 56

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study The researcher writes persuasively so that the reader experiences “being there.” The concept of verisimilitude, a literary term, captures our thinking (Richardson, 1994, p. 521). The writing is clear, engaging, and full of unexpected ideas. The story and findings become believable and realistic, accurately reflecting all the complexities that exist in real life and engaging the reader.

Answer 56

Writing Persuasively and Engaging the Reader

Question 57

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study A key feature of a good qualitative study is persuasive writing that engages the reader and makes the findings come alive. This involves using vivid descriptions, unexpected insights, and a narrative style that makes the reader feel as if they are "being there" with the participants.

Answer 57

Writing Persuasively and Engaging the Reader

Question 58

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study The researcher situates himself or herself within the study to reflect his or her history, culture, and personal experiences. This is more than simply an autobiography, with the writer or the researcher telling about his or her background. It focuses on how individuals’ culture, gender, history, and experiences shape all aspects of the qualitative project, from their choice of a question to address, to how they collect data, to how they make an interpretation of the situation, and to what they expect to obtain from conducting the research.

Answer 58

Situating the Researcher Within the Study

Question 59

The Features of a “Good” Qualitative Study Finally, a good qualitative study acknowledges the researcher's background, culture, and experiences and how these shape the research process. This reflexivity allows the researcher to critically examine their own biases and how these might influence the study.

Answer 59

Situating the Researcher Within the Study

Question 61

It refer to the framework and organization that researchers use to outline their research projects clearly and effectively. These structures serve as a guide for presenting the research in a way that is logical, comprehensive, and engaging for the intended audience, which may include supervisors, funding review panels, or other stakeholders. While no rigid format exists for creating these plans or proposals, certain design elements and topics are commonly included to ensure clarity and coherence.

Answer 61

The Design Structures of a Plan or Proposal