Module 1, 2, & 3 Flashcards
How do we “get at” biology
The scientific method
The scientific method is an __________-________ approach to ________-__________
evidence based approach to problem solving
The scientific method is driven by _________ and __________
observation and hypothesis
Science must be both _________ and ___________
testable and falsifiable
An idea about how things work
hypothesis
A hypothesis should be in the form of a ____________
statement
The scientific method allows us to get to the facts without _________
bias
To effectively do science, the phenomena in question needs to be ___________ _____ ________ __________ ___________
rooted in the natural world
Three examples of things that cannot be science because they aren’t testable, falsifiable, or rooted in the natural world
- supernatural things
- Belief systems
- Value judgements/ethical questions
Australian physician who infected himself with bacteria to prove they causes stomach ulcers
Barry Marshall
Bacteria that causes stomach ulcers
helicobacter Pylori
Who invented the polio vaccine
Jonas Sal
Type of logic that involves the combining of a series of specific observations
Inductive reasoning
Type of logic that involves a general principle to predict an expected observation
deductive reasoning
type of reasoning that is the strongest
deductive reasoning
__________ reasoning takes the form of an if/then statement
deductive reasoning
- Fruits and vegetables contain vitamin C
- People who eat a lot of fruits and vegetables seem to be healthier than those who don’t
hypothesis: consuming vitamin c prevents you from getting sick
inductive reasoning
- Fruits and vegetables contain vitamin C
- Consuming vitamin C prevents infection
- Eating fruits and vegetables prevents infection
deductive reasoning
two types of hypothesis
Null hypothesis, alternative hypothesis
what you are trying to discredit in with your study
Null hypothesis
The null hypothesis states there is no difference _________ between two groups
statistically
what kind of hypothesis is this: giving the drug will do nothing to the patient
The null hypothesis
States there is a statistically significant relationship between two variables
alternative hypothesis
sets of actions or observations designed to test hypotheses
experiment
information collected during a test
data
anything that changes in value under different circumstances
variables
the value that is changed by the scientist
Independent variable
Variable that cannot be changed by the researcher
dependent variable
If testing for bacterial growth over time, bacterial growth is the _______ variable
dependent variable
If testing for bacterial growth over time, time is the _______ variable
independent variable
Typically when something is measured over time, time is the __________ variable
independent
The __________ variable is on the x axis
independent variable
The best explanation we have for something
theory
Theory is based on well-supported __________ from several different independent lines of research
hypotheses
The ________ group receives the treatment in a study
experimental group
The _________ group receives a placebo in a study
control group
a research method that examines the relationship between an exposure and an outcome in a group of people. The study looks back in time to compare groups of people who have different exposures to a risk factor
retrospective cohort studies
Idea that if we take the plasma from someone who has recovered from infection and infuse it in someone else, it should help cure them
convalescent plasma
An experiment where the doctors don’t even know who gets what
double blind
An experiment where the doctors nor the people running data analysis know who gets what
triple blind trial
Asked “What is life” in his 1944 book
Erwin Schrodinger
Every element other than ________ was forged in the hearts of stars
hydrogen
Everything in the universe is based on ______, then physics, then chemistry, then biology
math
The fundamental forms of matter that are composed of atoms
elements
Smallest units that still contain the properties of a given element
atoms
Atoms are made of _________, __________, and ___________
protons, neutrons, and electrons
found in the nucleus of an atom and have a + charge
protons
The atomic number tells you how many _________ are in the atom
protons
the number of _________ determines what element it is
protons
Found in the nucleus and have no charge/neutral
neutrons
exist in orbits around the nucleus and have a - charge
Electrons
If you have a hydrogen atom, and you get rid of the electron, you now have a ________ charged ion
positively
an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge
Ion
Neutral atoms have the same number of __________ and _________
protons, electrons
Two ions coming together create __________ via ionic bonds
compounds
Table salt (sodium chloride) is a _________ bond, where sodium donates an electron to chlorine
ionic
water is a universal __________
solvent
the thing that dissolves in a solution
solute
Water is a _________ molecule which means its atoms (H & O) do not share electrons evenly
polar
When one side of a compound has a negative charge and the other has a positive charge
polar molecule
_______ molecules will dissolve in water
polar
If something doesn’t have a ________, water won’t dissolve it
charge
Why won’t oil dissolve in water?
It is neutral. It’s not a polar molecule
Biological systems are generally based on __________
carbon
when e- are transferred between + and - charged ions
Ionic Bonds
The equal sharing of electrons
covalent bonds
Type of bonds that have more energy and are stronger bonds
covalent bonds
In a covalent bond, if two e- are involved it is a single bond. If 4 e- are involved it’s a __________ bond
double
Ionic bonds dissolve easily because there is not a lot of ________. When they are broken, they will not release much ________
energy
Fuel is always going to be a ________ bond
covalent (because when bonds are broken, they release a lot of energy)
Large organic molecules that consist of sub-units
macromolecules
macromolecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
carbohydrates
a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a polymer
monomer
Example of a mono-sacharide (simple sugar)
glucose
formula for glucose
C6H12O6
what we call glucose that we eat/that is outside of the body
dextrose
Name for a bunch of monomers strung together
polymer
You eat a sugar monomer but a sugar polymer is __________
paper
composed of amino acid subunits
protein
one amino acid is _____________
mono-peptide
two amino acids is a ____________
di-peptide
Amino acids combine into large polymers called __________
polypeptides
aspartame is an example of a
dipeptide
accelerate chemical reactions
enzymes
steroids do not ___________
polymerize
_________ ________ fold onto themselves to make protein
Polypeptide chains
Venom proteins for _________ preconditioning
neurosurgical
three-carbon skeleton with three hydrocarbon chains
fats
hydrocarbon chains are also called ____ ______ ______
fatty acid tails
Unlike phospholipids, fats do not have a _________ group
phosphate group
true or false: all fats are lipids
true
true or false: all lipids are fats
false
four fused carbon-containing rings
steroid
example of a steroid
cholesterol, stress hormones (corticosterone), sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone)
three carbon skeleton but with two hydrocarbon chains and a charged phosphate group
phospholipid
the _______ ________ side of a phospholipid wants to go towards water
phosphate head
__________ __________ side of a phospholipid wants to go away from water
fatty-acid tails
what makes up cell membranes
phospholipids
Francis Crick and James Watson discovered what about DNA
it’s a double helix
consists of sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
nucleotide
nucleotides are __________ (they are the basic units that make up nucleic acids)
monomers
four nitrogenous bases
adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine
_______ _________ are large molecules made up of many nucleotides
Nucleic acids
the two types of nucleic acids
ribonucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid
helps synthesize proteins
ribonucleic acid
the code to build a protein
DNA
RNA does not have _______ but DNA does
thymine
deoxyribonucleic acid offers the ______ for every living thing
recipe
instead of thymine, RNA has __________
uracyle
DNA has _______ _______: each strand comes together and wraps around each other. Adenine will only bind with thiamine and C will only bind with G.
complimentary binding
Complimentary binding in DNA creates a ____________ stable shape
thermodynamically stable
The central dogma of molecular biology is a theory stating that genetic information flows only in one direction, from ______, to _______, to _______.
DNA, RNA, protein
Both ecology/organismal biology and cellular/molecular biology are unified under the banner of ________ biology
evolutionary
the fundamental particles of the elements
atoms
the fundamental units of life
cells
_______ _______ keep the hostile environment out of a cell and the hospitable environment in
cell membrane
cell membranes are ________ layered with the fatty acid tails pointing to the _________ and the phosphate groups pointed to the ________
double layered, inside, outside
type of cell with membrane-bound organelles
eukaryotes
4 types of eukaryotes
animals, plants, fungi, protists
2 types of prokaryotes
bacteria and archaea
true or false: all cells have a cell membrane
true
All cells contain a fluid of salts and enzymes called
cytosol
Cytoplasm refers to everything in a cell between the cell membrane and the nucleus. The _________ and the ____________
cytosol and the organelles
Phospholipid tails are __________ and the phosphate group is ___________
hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads
Which part of the phospholipid points towards water?
the phosphate group (head)
Why is the membrane of a cell double layered?
The inside of cells is made of water and the outside of cells is mostly water. Therefore, the water-loving layer needs to point in both directions. So the water-hating side (the tails) have to point at each other so we can keep the good stuff in and the bad stuff out
different between eukaryotes and prokaryotes
eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles and prokaryotes do not
Somewhat rigid structure that helps maintain cellular shape
cell walls
what 3 organisms have cell walls
plants, fungi, bacteria
Why is it important that bacteria have cell walls and humans don’t?
antibiotics target the cell wall. Hence, bacteria cells are killed but our cells are fine
The dna of a cell is found where
nucleus
Name for the membrane of the nucleus
nuclear envelope
The nucleus is _________ so chemicals can come an go (such as testosterone which can modify gene expression and cause things to happen)
porous
Inside the nucleus is a smaller “nucleus” called a ___________
nucleolus
What does the nucleolus produce
ribosomal subunits
Where are ribosomal subunits synthesized
the nucleolus
True or false: all eukaryotic cells have a nucleus
false: while most do, some, like red blood cells, do not
Mitochondria has intrusions/folds in their inner membrane called ____________
cristae
Cristae do what for mitochondria
Cristae increase the surface area of the inner membrane allowing more room to produce energy at a faster rate
Unlike other organelles, mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own __________ that is uniquely theirs
genome
what two organelles were likely once free-living cells
mitochondria and chloroplast
Chloroplast is the organelle that uses sun energy to convert __________ and water into __________
CO2 and water into sugars
What is the byproduct of photosynthesis
oxygen
What is the fluid inside of chloroplasts called
Stroma
sacks of digestive enzymes used to break down proteins
Lysosomes
All cells have what organelle
ribosomes
What is the oldest organelle evolutionarily speaking
ribosomes
Ribosomes assemble what
proteins
True or false: viruses have ribosomes
false. Viruses don’t have ribosomes so they infect other cells to use theirs to make copies of themselves
Ribosomes are composed of how many structural subunits
two structural subunits
What two places are ribosomes found
free floating in the cytoplasm or incorporated into the rough endoplasmic reticulum
The majority of protein synthesis happens where in the cell
the rough endoplasmic reticulum
What organelle projects from and is continuous with the nuclear envelope
the endoplasmic reticulum
what are the two sections of the ER
the smooth er and the rough er
Smooth ER functions depend on the type of cell but are involved with ___________ and ________ synthesis
detoxification and lipid synthesis
Can be thought of like a FedEx hub where proteins are sorted and transported out to where they need to go
golgi apparatus or golgi bodies
barrel-shaped rings that anchor structures within the cell
centrioles
Centrioles help move _________ around inside the cell
chromosomes
Centrioles are used in the formation of __________ and _________
cilia and flagella
Name for the little tail that some cells use to move
flagella
True or false: Plants have centrioles
false: plants do not have centrioles
Protein fibers that give the cell its shape and structural support
cytoskeleton
membrane bound organelles are anchored to the _______________
cytoskeleton
What is the cytoskeleton made of?
microtubules
__________ can be moved along the cytoskeleton microtubules by motor proteins
vesicles
That guy that STRUTS HIS STUFF, dragging vesicles along the microtubules
kinesin
means “the same number of particles on the inside and the outside”
equilibrium
To get into/out of a cell, water goes through a specific tunnel made or protein called an ____________
aquaporin
What can water not just ooze throught he cell wall like some other particles?
It is polar. Unchared molecules can ooze through
The hydrophobic tails on the phospholipids
“Every time something dies it is because of a failure in _________ __________”
membrane transport
two types of transport across membranes
passive transport and active transport
Passive transport involves the diffusion of molecules across __________ ___________
concentration gradients
Name for diffusion of water
osmosis
true or false: If a particle uses channels to get into a cell, it is using active transport
false: Whether a particle uses channels or not has nothing to do with it being active or passive. That’s purely based on whether the particle is going from high concentration to low or vice versa
when particles move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
passive transport/diffusion
When particles move from areas of low concentration to areas of high concentration
active transport
What do charged particles need to pass through the cell membrane
channels
Active transport requires what?
Energy in the form of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Why do slugs shrivel up when you pour salt on them?
There is a high concentration of solute on the outside of the slug. Water rushes out of the cells to reduce this concentration and maintain equilibrium
What happens if you drop a slug in a jar of de-ionized water
de-ionized water = water with no salt
The salt on the inside of the slug can’t easily get out, so that water on the outside will passively diffuse into the slug, blowing it up
what is a hypotonic solution
not enough salt
what happens if you start an IV that is hypotonic
the patient’s cells will blow up (hemolysis)
what is a hypertonic solution
too much salt
what happens if you start an iv that is hypertonic
the patient’s cells will shrivel up
word for equal amount of salt and water
isotonic solution
what kind of IV should you be getting in the hospital
isotonic
Large molecules are generally too big to cross membranes via __________
diffusion
What type of vesicle is required to transport large molecules across cell membranes
membrane-bound vesicles
Movement of a large molecule out of the cell is a process called
exocytosis
what is this describing: Protein (or whatever large molecule) gets wrapped up in a phospholipid membrane. The membrane moves and fuses with the cell membrane and then spits the protein out the other side of the cell
exocytosis
what is this describing: Protein (or whatever) gets to the cell membrane. A piece of the membrane pinches itself around the protein then separates, moving the protein to the inside of the cell in its own little membrane bubble
endocytosis
