Module 1 Flashcards
argument definition
a piece of reasoning meant to justify a certain conclusion
fallacy definition
an incorrect step in an argument
Argument ad hominem- ad baculum (fallacy of the stick) definition
appeal to force in order to either silence/ threaten the opponent
Argument ad hominem - abusive (direct attack) definition
Character or other irrelevant personal qualities of the opponent are presented as if they are evidence against her position, often coupled with insults. Used to distract the audience from the topic of the debate.
Argument ad hominem- Circumstantial (indirect attack) definition
irrelevant personal facts of the opponent are brought in to undermine their credibility and distract attention of the audience from the topic of the debate.
Alternatively, doubt is cast on the opponent’s motives for arguing the way they do
Argument ad hominem- poisoning the well definition
committing a pre-emptive ad hominem attack on the opponent, based on personal qualities irrelevant to the debate, before the opponent has been able to make her case.
i.e. tainting the image of the opponent before they have made their argument.
This may stall the debate, and leave the position of the attacker as the apparent winner
Argumentum ad hominem- tu qoque definition
the attempt to counter an attack from the opponent by retorting the attack on the opponent their self, thus distracting the audience from the original issue
Argumentum ad misericordiam definition
appeal to emotions of pity rather than rationality in order to support a proposition.
straw man definition
oversimplifying or pushing to the extreme the opponent’s thesis.
ignoratio elenchi (fallacy of irrelevance) definition
putting forward a proposition which might be true, but has no relation with the conclusion it is used/ purported to support
Argumentum ad verecundiam (appeal to authority) definition
appeal to authority rather than rational arguments for the support or dismissal of a proposition
Plurium interrogation (many questions fallacy) definition
a question is posed to the opponent, which implicitly assumes an affirmative/ negative answer to one or more questions P1,… Pn on which the validity of question Q depends.
Shifting the burden of proof definition
rather than justifying one’s own thesis, forcing the other person to disprove the thesis or to justify their own instead
Petitio principii (begging the question/ circular reasoning) definition
assuming, as a premise of an argument, its conclusion.
The more premise an argument has, and the more convoluted it is, the more different to spot the circularity
using a rephrased version of a statement to argue that statement
false analogy definition
a fallacy which introduces a weak analogy between A and B in order to claim that since A has property P, then B also has property P.
hasty generalisation definition
making a claim based on evidence that is too small
Cum hoc ergo propter hoc definition
a fallacy committed whenever one infers the conclusion that A must be the cause of B exclusively from the observation that A and B exist or vary simultaneously.
there may be an additional variable that causes both variations
Post hoc ergo propter hoc (temporal succession) definition
a fallacy committed whenever one infers the conclusion that A must be the cause of B exclusively from the observation that A and B are in temporal succession. Temporal succession of events A and B is a necessary condition for A to be a cause of B, but it is not a sufficient condition.
i.e. When B occurs after A, then A must be responsible for B
slippery slope definition
arguing that there exists a causal chain of events C1, …, Cn leading from an event A to another event B which is usually considered bad in some way (morally or otherwise).
Denying the antecedent definition
a conditional statement of the form “if P is the case, then Q must be the case” establishes P as a sufficient condition for Q to occur. Assuming that the conditional statement holds, claiming that P is false is, however, not sufficient to conclude that Q is also false; for instance, there might be other sufficient conditions enforcing the truth of Q.
Affirmation of the consequent definition
when one concludes (from the observation) that truth A logically implies truth B, therefore if B occurs, A must also occur.
composition/ division fallacy definition
to deduce, from the fact that all of the component parts of a whole possess the property P, that the whole possesses P.
Ad ignorantiam definition
absence of evidence for a proposition does not constitute evidence for its contrary
the gambler’s fallacy definition
inferring that a certain outcome of a random trial is more likely– given that a specific history of outcomes of previous (statistically independent random trials) has been observed.
false dilemma definition
arguing for a proposition P by assuming without support that either P or Q must be the case, and that Q must be rejected.
presents only two options or sides when there are many options or sides.
The Department of Transportation needs to reconsider the speed limit proposals on interstate highways for the simple reason that if they do not, their departmental budget for Department of Transportation will be cut by 25%.
Argument ad baculum (fallacy of the stick/ appealing to force) example
cognitive bias definition
a pattern of thought that systematically leads us to irrational or incorrect conclusions
belief bias definition
judging an argument on the basis of what we believe about the conclusion, rather than the actual strength of the arguments
availability heuristic definition
jumping to conclusions on the basis of available information that quickly comes to mind.
The information may be based on limited evidence, that nevertheless gives rise to immediate convictions
conjunction fallacy definition
when the conjunction of two events (properties) is judged to be probable than one of the events (properties)
halo/horns effect definition
the tendency for an impression/ opinion created in one area to influence an impression/ opinion in another area.
We tend to think simplistically (black and white view)
affect heuristic definition
making judgements based on emotions when it is inappropriate
confirmation bias example
the tendency to search for and interpret information in a way that confirms our preconceptions
confirmation bias- self-verification definition
the drive to reinforce one’s positive self-image
confirmation bias- imposter syndrome definition
the drive to reinforce one’s negative self-image
confirmation bias- self-handicapping
creating conditions for failure to protect one’s ego.
investments in a future reality in which one can blame their failure on something other than their own ability
types of confirmation bias
- self-verification
- imposter syndrome
- self-handicapping
