Module 1 Flashcards
What is a Revolution?
A revolution is a fundamental and relatively sudden change in a social, political. economic or religious organization which occurs when a population of people revolt against an established organization, typical due to perceived oppression or
incompetence.
Types of Revolutions
1) Political Revolution: A political revolution is an upheaval in which the government is replaced, or the form of government is altered. The French Revolution, Russian Revolution and American Revolution were largely political revolutions.
2) Economic Revolution: An economic revolution is one that leads to some fundamental changes in the economic system or way of production. Consider, for example, the Industrial Revolution which led to the creation of factories, trains and steam engines.
3) Social Revolution: A social revolution is one that leads to some changes in the social relations, institutions and organizations. It can be political, economic and religious. However, people would relate to each other differently. Hence, the Industrial Revolution, French Revolution and American Revolution are all examples of social revolutions despite their economic and political influences.
4) Religious Revolution: A religious revolution will lead to some changes in the way people worship or lead to the recognition of some religious group due to the dismantlement of some beliefs or established religious group. Consider, for example, the reformation which occurred in the 16 Century.
Background of the Enlightenment
During the Middle Ages (5th to 15th Century), European society was marked by a history of oppression and political instability.
Governments were controlled by absolutist kings and queens who principally not being restricted by written laws. legislature, or customs.
European society was also very religious. and churches were rigid and repressive.
- Since the 1400s, European people started to think for themselves and began to focus on science, literature, art, politics and foreign affairs. This started the period known as the “Renaissance” which was deemed as the “rebirth of learning”.
- The ideas of the renaissance grew after the Middle Ages. but real changes did not come about until the 18” Century (the 1700s).
- The intellectual movement among European people in the 18 Century is referred to as the Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. The thinkers of Enlightenment were called “philosophes”. The philosophies were of the view that they should have a say in the way they are governed. The campaigned
or increased knowledge and training. religious freedom. freedom of speech and other ideas that could lead to the well-being of humanity. They argued that society should be influenced by science and logic. - Secularization: Religion was losing its significance in European society and so many people did not feel fearful of the church. They noticed that religion could no longer explain to them why certain things were happening in their society and as such, they started to look towards science to fill that gap. The impact of the Reformation in the 16th Century was important. This led to several religious reform and broke down traditional religious systems.
- Rise of Science - The philosophes were influenced greatly by the scientific revolution. They argued that all people had the innate ability to think for themselves. Science led to new fields such as psychology, physics, mathematics, astronomy etc.
- Repressive Government: Kings and nobles who ruled society believed that they had the right to rule as they were chosen by God. They did little to benefit the well-being of their people. Political principles that were raised by prominent philosophes made it clear that the government was much too dogmatic and unfair.
- Radical thinkers of Enlightenment: These men were radical philosophes who had believed that science and natural philosophy can replace religion as the main means of knowing the nature and destiny of humanity. Important men that paved the way for Enlightenment included, Dennis Diderot, Claude Adrein Helvetius, Barnard Holbach, Voltaire, Hobbes, Jacques Rousseau
and John Locke among others. - Capitalism: The emergence of new merchants who grew wealthy from the East and the Americas. They too wanted to replace the aristocracy because they felt that they were not being treated fairly due to their newly acquired wealth. This led to the bourgeoisies (middle class wealthy men).
- Individualism: A growing sense of individualism made people look at their desires rather than that of their country, government. and church. People started to put themselves first.
- The Age of Exploration: Europeans began to explore the world from the early 1400s and were able to reach the Americas by the 1490s. They learnt new cultures and beliefs and assimilated them into Europe.
The English Enlightenment
England has the first wave of the Enlightenment. However, most of the principles from the European Enlightenment came from the French Enlightenment.
The English people started to demand changes 4 in the way they were governed from the early 1600s. Between 1618 and 1648, the Thirty Years’ War which started in Germany impacted Europe.
As what began as a religious civil war between the Protestants and Roman Catholics in Germany war soon developed into a devastating struggle for the balance of power in Europe.
The English people were influenced by the War and in 1649, the English Civil War broke out.
English people demanded changes in the way they were governed because they felt that the English monarchy was intolerable.
`The civil war led to the execution of King Charles I and led to the creation of a republic under Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell became a dictator and after his death, King Charles II returned the monarchy in 1660. King Charles II, however, was fearful of another civil war and so he agreed to allow the people play a role in the way they were governed.
This began the “Glorious Revolution” in which England gained a Parliament, limited the monarchy, religious freedom (to some extent) etc. The Glorious Revolution was important for England because it ensured that, unlike France, England had less conflicts in the 1700s. It is also for this reason that England was first to undergo the Industrial Revolution.
The French Enlightenment
France realized the enlightenment principles later than the Britain as it lagged by over a century. The role of England in paving the road for enlightenment cannot be denied, but much credit must be given to France, in showing the extent to which people will go to ushering such principles within a backward society.
As with England, the French Enlightenment was rooted in the people’s discontent to their government. France had it worst. They had a series of monarch, who not only believed that they had divine right to rule but did little to benefit the people of France.
When the French philosophes visited England in the early 1700s, they had understood the manner in which society should work. They travelled back to France with many ideas of enlightenment and these were well received and appreciated. Men such as Rousseau, Montesquieu and Voltaire created much headlines in France as they imparted their respectively theories to the people. With the growing modernization of France and the increase literacy of people, these theories were widespread and effective. By 1789, the people of France rose to the occasion and the French Revolution broke out.
The French Revolution proved to be a symbol of hope for all people who were oppressed by their leaders across the globe.
The Social Contract
Philosophe: Thomas Hobbes & Jean Jacque Rousseau
Summary:
This principle require that people create a social contract between themselves and their government. In which the government agrees to create laws that benefit all people and protect them and the people will agree to follow the laws. If the government breaks this contract, them the people of a society is empowered to remove them.
Rousseau argued that the social contract is important because it allows people to overcome inevitable conflicts that occur as society expands and people become more dependent on each other to meet their needs.
General Will (Popular Sovereignty)
Philosophe: Jean Jacque Rosseau
Summary: It is the believe that the people of a society should be empowered to choose their government.
Most European societies up to the late 1700s, people had no say in how they were governed due to the control Kings and Queens who believed that they had the divine right to rule; absolutism.
Rosseau argued that it is the general will of the people that should determine how that country is governed rather than aristocrats and monarchs. This resonated with French people in particular who were burdened by the French Government under feudalism.
In 1789, the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizens, which was written to recognized this principle as it stated “Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to concur personally or through their
representatives, in its formation”
Rejection of Absolutism
Philosophe: Dennis Diderot
Summary:
During feudalism, Europeans monarchies held supreme authority and were not restricted by any written laws or customs as they had a divine right to rule.
This was based on the old adage
“ A Deo rex, a rege lex” — From God, the King,
From the King, the Law
The philosophes stressed that no one should be above the law since all men are equal before God. They questioned the benefit of absolutism which created dictators and tyrant monarchs
Diderot was a major proponent of rationalism and religious tolerance. One of his famous saying is “Man will never be free until the last king is strangled with the entrails of the last priest”. He famously edited the first encyclopedia in France and stated that its purpose is to change the way people think.
Equality before the law
Philosophe: John Locke
Summary: He argued that all men should be given equal protection under the law. At the time, the laws seemingly applied to commoners and did not apply to nobles, aristocrats and the clergy.
Constitutionalism
Philosophe: John Locke
Summary: It is a political philosophy based on the idea that government authority is derived from the people and should be limited by a constitution that clearly expresses what the government can and cannot do.
The philosophes argued that there should be a written document (constitution) that outlines the rights of all people in society.
The constitution would outline the roles and rights of the people in a society and then government. It should have guidelines for how to govern the people of a society and how to remove a government
This belief was adopted by the Americas after the American Revolution.
Freedom of Speech
Philosophe: Francoise Voltaire
Summary: It is the belief that people should be able to speak their mind, free from harm and persecution.
During feudalism, European people were fearful of what they said about the government and suffered a great deal of censorship from the monarchs.
Having been influenced by the Glorious Revolution, Voltaire wrote heavily about religious freedom and bashed the Roman Catholic Church.
He also famously said, “I do not agree with a word that you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it”.
Separation of Powers
Philosophe: Baron Charles de Montesquieu
Summary: It involves the division of the government into distinct branches, each having its own responsibilities and powers.
The branches operate separately so as to limit any one branch from having ultimate power. Essentially, they provide a “checks and balances”.
He argued that when the role of the legislative and executive are combined in one person (as in the case of a King), there is nothing that prevents tyranny.
He believed that a separation of the branches of the government (legislature, executive, judiciary) would lead to fairness, equality and stability.
This principles was adopted by the United States after its independence and has defined modern democracies.
Right to Revolution
Philosophe: John Locke & Jean Jacque Rosseau
Summary: Derived from the principle of social contract and general will, the philosophes argue that people should have a right to remove a government or leader through revolution
They both argued that if the government is not fulfilling is responsible or benefiting the majority of people in a society, then they are entitled to remove that government
by some process that is determined by a general will of the people
This principle was readily accepted by the people of America in the 1770s and France in the 1780s who took up arms against their governments.
Effect of the European Enlightenment on Europe
1) It led to the rise of several Enlightened Despots:
These were monarchs who implemented several of the principles of Enlightenment in an attempt to prevent
widespread revolution. These included Catherine the Great of Russia, Fredrick the Great of Prussia, King Charles II of Spain etc. Many of these monarchs ended
censorship, improved agriculture and implemented social reforms. Many did not take the reforms seriously but did it to appease the people.
2) Influenced the French Revolution which demonstrated the greatest effect of the philosophes in Europe.
3) Ended feudalism in many European countries, particularly in France. Feudalism was officially ended after the French Revolution.
4) Led to the introduction of several political concepts in Europe such as constitutionalism, limited monarchy, rule of Law and equality before the law. These political principles continue to influence modern European governments.
5) Influenced several social disciplines such as sociology, economics, philosophy etc.
Effect of the European Enlightenment in the Americas
1) Influenced the American Revolution and the Haitian Revolution
2) Led to the end of slavery in the French Caribbean (this was reimplemented by Napoleon Bonaparte).
3) Influenced the independence movement in several countries in Latin America including Venezuela and Brazil
4) Influenced the modern democratic principles in the United States of America and countries in Latin America and the Caribbean
Decline of the Enlightenment
In Europe, the French Revolution was so radical that it showed the dangers of the Enlightenment. Hence, after the French Revolution many countries in Europe took steps to avoid such a radical revolution
The Industrial Revolution which started in the early 1700s gave rise to Capitalists, some of whom were not in support of the Enlightenment
In the Americas, the Enlightenment remain significant because the political principles were incorporated into political documents such as Bill of Rights, Constitutions etc. However, in the USA, in particular by the early 1800s there was revival in religion which saw a backlash to rationalism.
The American Colonies
In the 1600s, the rich supply of fish, lumber and fur and the prospect of mineral resources in North American led to rapid European colonization. In 1607, Britain created its first settlement in Virginia in North America by the name of Jamestown and started to expand along the eastern coast.
By the 1700s, Britain had colonized the eastern coast of
North America and had 13 colonies under their rule: Rhode Island, Virginia, New York, Delaware etc.
At this point, there were over 1.5 million colonists living in the British North American colonies and immigrants flow in from all over Europe and the Caribbean.
The colonists grew wealthy (from slavery, trades with the West Indies and plantations) and had a zeal for self-governance which was influence by the principles of Enlightenment that had reach North America.
Mercantilism and the Navigational Acts
Mercantilism was based on the belief that a country’s prosperity depended on how much gold and silver it had stocked up. Therefore, ideally a nation should import only raw materials( cotton or iron) and export finished manufactured products (clothes or pitchforks).
The import of manufactured goods from European countries (Spain, France, Holland ) were subjected to high taxes and import duties which is called protectionism.
In 1651, Britain introduced the Navigational Acts which stated that goods being carried from England to the colonies or vice versa had to be transported in English or colonial ships. This was intended to stop the Dutch from trading with British colonies.
What effect did Mercantilism and the Navigational Acts have on North American colonists
These economic policies were intended to use the American colonies to bolster British state power and finances.
They inflamed the hostilities of American colonists and proved a significant contributing event leading up to the revolution.
Although they grew resentful of British rule, they continued to endure these repressive economic policies because they needed the protection of the British navy, which grew powerful by the 1700s.
Why did the North American colonies need Britain’s protection?
The North American colonies were in a peculiar position where they were vulnerable to threats from the French
and Spanish who also had an interest in North America and the Native Americans (Indians) who rejected further European Expansion in North America.
However, North American colonies were pacified by Britain who passed a policy of salutary neglect. This policy stated that as long as the colonists remained loyal to Britain (particularly with relations to trades), the British government will not past Acts that were harmful to the economic growth of the colonists.
All of this changed by 1756 with the outbreak of the Seven Years War (1756-1763).
The Seven Years War (1756- 1763)
The Seven Years War or the French and Indian War of
1756 was a massive war that was fought across the
Americas between Britain, France, Spain and Holland.
Naturally, the entire issue was about British expansion in North America. Britain wanted to expand its 13 colonies to the west beyond the Mississippi and the Appalachian Mountains. France and Spain who had an interest beyond the rejected British expansion.
The Native Americans (Indians) who had a good trading relationship with the French and also wanted to keep their lands.
The North American colonists were excited and eager about British expansion to the west and the prospect of acquiring additional land to the west meant that they were willing to back Britain and the British government.
Indeed, they paid all revenues that were required of them to ensure that the British Army was successful in the Seven Years Wars. Britain, who by all indication had grown so massive and powerful from its colonial trades, were victorious and successfully defeated the French, Spanish, Dutch and Native Americans.
The Seven Years War ended with the Treaty of Paris of
1763. Under the treaty, Britain gained the right to expand beyond the Mississippi and the Appalachian Mountains and the French Empire in North America shrunk.
