Module 1

Question 1

Scientific Method

Answer 1

consists of learning assumptions, goals and procedures for creating and answering questions.

Question 2

What are the 4 goals of science?

Answer 2

1. Description - what happened - describe a behaviour and the conditions under which it occurred.
2. Explanation - why it happened - causes of behaviour.
3. Prediction - what will happen next?
4. Control - how to make it happen.

Question 3

What are the 4 approaches to understanding?

Answer 3

1. Authority approach
2. Analogy approach
3. Rule Approach
4. Empirical approach

Question 4

Authority approach

Answer 4

seeking out knowledge from sources that are believed to be reliable and valid.
However, you can’t follow it blindly

Question 5

Analogy approach

Answer 5

analogy between some new events and a more familiar understandable event.
The problem with it is that it is open to a number of interpretations

Question 6

Rule approach

Answer 6

try to establish laws or rules that cover a variety of different observations. It can save time and effort but if followed blindly it can threaten the advancement of understanding.

Question 7

Empirical approach

Answer 7

testing ideas against actual events - observing behaviour and drawing conclusions.

Question 8

How can we achieve Causation?

Answer 8

In an experiment where one factor directly affects another factor.
It must demonstrate that changing the first thing produces a change in the second and that there is no other possible cause for the change in the second thing

Question 9

What are the components of an experiment?

Answer 9

1. population sample
2. dependent variable
3. operational definition
4. reliability and validity
5. bias
6. floor and ceiling effects.
7. data types and scales of measurement

Question 10

Population Sample

Answer 10

Population - members of a specific group and defined by the purposes of the experiment.
Sample - relatively small subset of a population that is selected to represent the population.
Representative Sample - characteristics and behaviour of the sample reflect those of a population and it ensures generalisability.

Question 11

How do you achieve a representative sample?

Answer 11

through random sampling:

Random sampling - select members have an equal chance of selection in an unbiased manner.

Question 12

Descriptive Statistics

Answer 12

summarises the data collected from samples

Question 13

Inferential Statistics

Answer 13

generalises the sample to the population

Question 14

Dependent Variable

Answer 14

It is the measurement taken.

It is what you record - depends on what the participant does.

Question 15

Operational Definition

Answer 15

Where in many cases there is no direct way to measure what you want so you have to think about 2 things:

1. property of interest (PI)- what you are trying to measure
2. dependent variable - a measurable value the must indirectly reflect the PI
   so. ..the operational definition is the specification of how the property of interest will be measured.

Question 16

Validity

Answer 16

Validity - a DV is valid if it measures what is is supposed too - threat to validity arises from any unintended component that is related in a score

Question 17

Reliability

Answer 17

Reliability - a DV is reliable if, under the same conditions, it gives the same measures and contains a minimum of measurement error - unreliable data reflect error and provide a biased perspective.

Question 18

Bias

Answer 18

a biased DV is consistently inaccurate in one direction - always high or always low

Question 19

Floor and Ceiling Effects

Answer 19

Ceiling Effect - when a task is so easy that all the scores are very high.
Floor Effect - when a task is so difficult that all the scores are very low.

Question 20

Data types and Scales of Measurement

Answer 20

the data type determines what sorts of analyses you can perform on your data and the conclusions you can draw.

either numerical (interval or ratio scales)
or categorical - which goes into ordered (ordinal scale) or unordered (nominal scale)

Question 21

Nominal Scale

Answer 21

categorises without ordering.
numbers that substitute for names.
e.g. 1 = female

Question 22

Ordinal Scale

Answer 22

categorises and orders the categories.
Bigger means more.
Distance between points on the scale is not considered equal.
e.g. rugby team standings

Question 23

Interval Scale

Answer 23

Categorises, orders and establishes and equal unit of measurement on the scale.
Knowing how much more.
Distance between points on scale is considered to be equal.
e.g. celcius temperature

Question 24

Ratio Scale

Answer 24

Categorises orders and establishes an equal unit on the scale.
True zero point.
Allows ratio statements

Question 25

Independent Variable

Answer 25

the experimental factor (s) that distinguishes your groups Manipulated by the experimenter. Has two or more levels.

Question 26

What happens if you have a Quasi experiement

Answer 26

if you have a quasi experiment you MAY NOT conclude that there is a casual relationship between the IV and the pattern of results

Question 27

Confounding Variable

Answer 27

If participants are not randomly assigned to condition, there may be differences between groups other than the DV. this means you can draw conclusions that aren't valid

Question 28

Important issues regarding IVs

Answer 28

1. Control groups 2. Placebo effects 3. Choosing levels properly 4. single and double-blind studies 5. demand characteristics

Question 29

Control Group

Answer 29

Comparison group. | Differs from experimental groups by the absence of the experimental treatments

Question 30

Placebo Effects

Answer 30

A special control group that believes it is receiving treatment when its not. The performance in this group gives an estimate of the size of the placebo effect.

Question 31

Single and Double-blind Studies

Answer 31

``` Single-blind = when a control group is used to measure the placebo effect - essential that the participant doesn't know what group they are in. Double-blind = neither experimenter or participants knows the condition that the participant is assigned to ```

Question 32

Demand Characteristics

Answer 32

cues in a new situation that people interpret as "demands" for a particular behaviour. either from participants, experimenter or environment = biases

Question 33

Between Subject Design (IV)

Answer 33

Each participant is tested in only one level of the IV. There may be confounds and to stop this use matching - which is a way to control extraneous subject variables - matched to treatment conditions.

Question 34

Within-subject Design (IV)

Answer 34

each subject is test in every level of the IV - each participants serves as their own control. This design reduces error variance which makes it easier to detect small systematic differences between treatment conditions.

Question 35

What is the PROBLEM with within-subject design?

Answer 35

1. Order Effects - order in which participants experience levels

Question 36

Order Effects

Answer 36

Order in which participants experience levels can be a problem - can be fixed with counter-balancing. Counter-balancing = each treatment condition is equally exposed to the practice effects and demand characteristics.

Question 37

What is it important to control

Answer 37

subject variables, demand characteristics and experimental materials.

Question 38

Multiple Independent Variables

Answer 38

More than 1 IV. | Allows determination of the effect of each IV on the DV and also how they interact.

Question 39

Factorial Design

Answer 39

Where you have a number of IVs in your design and you collect data in all combinations of the levels of your IV your design is fully crossed.

Question 40

What is the Main Effect of Factorial Design

Answer 40

the effects of one IV on the DV, ignoring the other IVs in the study. there is a main effect for each IV

Question 41

Interaction Effect

Answer 41

The effects of one IV on the DV taking into account the other IV(s) in the study. In graphs: if the lines diverge or intersect then there is an interaction. if the lines are parallel then there is no interaction

Question 42

How to calculate midpoint

Answer 42

lower exact limit + 1/2 class interval width

Question 43

Shapes of Frequency Distribution

Answer 43

uniform or rectangular distribution