Module 01 Flashcards
Origins of Research, Research Questions and Rationales
What is research?
Research is a systematic investigation for the purpose of discovering and explaining new knowledge. Through research, we answer question, explore and refine ideas, and increase understanding about phenomena (i.e. things that can be observed)
What is Epistemology?
Branch of philosophy concerned with answering the question “What is knowledge”
Describe empiricism as a “way of knowing”
focus on observations by the senses
Describe idealism as a “way of knowing”
focus on intuition
Describe rationalism as a “way of knowing”
Combination of observation, theory, and a “system of thinking”
Describe constructivism as a “way of knowing”
Recognition that knowledge is generated from subjective representations of objective realities; it is created from and interaction between people’s experiences and ideas
Which “ways of knowing” dominate laboratory-based research? (2)
Empiricism and Rationalism
Which “way of knowing” is increasingly recognized as key to understanding social determinants of health?
Constructivism
What are the 8 steps of the “cycle of inquiry” (research process)?
(1) Make an observation
(2) ask a broad question about the observation
(3) Review previous research
(4) Ask/Refine a question
(5) Formulate objectives
(6) Design the best way to meet objectives
(7) Make an observation
(8) Analyze Data & Report Results
Where can observations come from?
What one experiences in nature, clinical settings, or from previous knowledge and readings
Why do you need to review previous research?
To know whether or not your question or aspects of it have already been answered
What should be included in your ‘refined’ question?
It should be something more specific which include
- Measurable variables
- Specified population
Describe the “formulate objectives” step in the cycle of inquiry
You put boundaries on the study you are attempting to conduct
- What are your main goals (objectives)
- What observation you want to test (hypothesis)?
What is the contribution of Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar on health research?
Conducted the first known semblance of a medical when he ordered youths of royal blood to eat only red meat and wine vs beans/vegetables and water
What is the contribution of Hippocrates on health research?
First recorded rational explanation of disease. Observed that disease occurs at a population level as well as an individual level. He concluded that there must be something in the “air, water, and places” to which populations were exposed that contributed to illness
What is the contribution of John Graunt on health? research?
Routinely collected data on births and deaths to quantify patterns of disease in the population, noting sex differences and seasonal variations.
Considered one of the first experts in epidemiology, for generating many of the statistical census methods used today
Book that generated the first statistical estimation of population health in early modern London
What is the contribution of Dr John Snow on health research?
Observation during his investigation of a cholera outbreak in London in 1854 played a critical role in the development of public health.
Due to his Dot map he was able to pinpoint the problematic “water pump” and took off the handle so people could no longer use it
What is the contribution of Rudolph Virchow on health research?
Work on pathological anatomy revealed that disease manifest itself at the cellular level, not at the organ level. His work launched the field of cellular pathology.
Advocated that the practive of medicine should shift toward systematic clinical observations at the cellular level as opposed to primarily theoretical activity
What is the contribution of Emile Durkheim on health research?
One of the first scientist to thoughtfully document patterns of disease outcomes (his research was on suicide) from careful observations of a large case series from his practice.
His work provided a seed to what would later become disease classification for suicide and related disorders
What are the contributions of Sir Bradford Hill on health research? (2)
(1) Widely known for Hill’s criteria for determining causal association
(2) Published a preliminary report on cigarette smoke and lung cancer
What are three examples of how thinking about health concerns has changed with the acquisition of new knowledge?
(1) autism
(2) AIDS
(3) Palliative care
What is etiology?
cause of a disease or condition
How have views on the etiology of autism changed through time?
1900s: Autism is a term used to describe a subset of schizophrenic patients who are especially withdrawn
1940s: Leo Kanner proposes parental coldness as a cause
1970s: twin studies point to the contribution of genetics to the cause of autism
1990s: Wakefield and colleagues falsely implicate MMR vaccine as a cause
2000s: Research continues to identify rare genetic mutations as wall as complex gene-environment interaction as causes
How have views on AIDS changed due to knowledge?
AIDS was formerly called GRID (gay-related immune deficiency)
Gaetan Dugas was vilified as being Patient 0 who brought the disease to the US in th 1980s
However, research has shown that this disease had been present in the 1970s as well and in California around the same time
What is the concept of hospice?
Caring derived from medieval times, symbolizing a place where travelers, pilgrims and the sick, wounded or dying could find rest and comfort
How have views on palliative care changed through time?
Historically, palliative care was provided in institutions
In the 1960s, 2 american sociologists (Glaser & Strauss) observed that instituionalized dying led to widespread alienation and isolation. During the same period, Swiss psychiatrist Kubler-Ross conducted interview with dying patients. Conclusion: option to die at home rather than in an institutional setting was needed
What are descriptive questions?
Focus on Who/What/When/Where
What are explanatory questions?
focus on Why/How
What are the 3 main purposes of a literature review?
(1) Situate your question(s) in the field (how has it change over time, What is know, What is not know)
(2) Compare with different disciplinary approaches (epidemiology, sociology, physiology)
(3) Identify possible ways to address your question (eg research methodologies)
What are the characteristics of a good research question? (7)
- Not already been answered
- Balanced and without bias
- Grounded in one or more existing fiels or disciplines
- Supported by clear and focused arguments
- Potential to lead to action
- Focused and specific
- Can be answered with the time and resources available
What is the issue with the following research question; Has the prevalence of eating disorders in young women changed?
Too broad, you could;
- specify type of eating disorder
- specify target group of “young women”
- indicate time frame for the change
What is the issue with the following research question; How many third-trimester still births have been observed at Kingston General Hospital over the past year?
Too focused, this could be answered by a google search
What does the acronym SMART stand for?
Specific Measurable Attainable Realistic Time-bounded
Beside having the SMART qualities, what other 2 components must be included in the objective of a study?
The What
The Who
Describe objectives
They must be clear, concise declarative statements that are directly related to the study’s statement of purpose
It begins with a verb (To describe, identify, establish, compare, test)
To determine whether of not the objectives are effective, what question must be answered? (3)
(1) Do the objectives begin with a ver that indicates how the variable will be measured?
(2) Is the study population specifically identified
(3) Are the variables that will be measured in the research identified?
What is a hypothesis?
A statement that stems directly from the research question and therefore reflects previous observations and the study’s rationale. This statement must be testable and falsiable
When are hypothesis used?
When the research requires more than a description and comparison. Eg: if the objective starts with “to test”
What are the 2 characteristics of an hypothesis?
Testable
falsifiable
What is a null hypothesis?
Proposition that undergoes verification to determine if it should be rejected in favour of an alternative proposition.
Typically a statement of the common view of something and what the researcher tries to disprove
Opposite of the alternative hypothesis
What is a study rationale?
An argument, or series of arguments, that convince a scientific audience that a particular research question needs to be addressed via a formal study
What are the 5 criteria of an effective study rationale?
(1) Research proposal
(2) Originality of proposal
(3) applicants
(4) environment for research
(5) Impact of the research
What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the Research approach criterion?
- Clarity of research question
- Completeness of literature review
- clarity of rationale for the research approach/methodology
- Appropriateness of the research design
- appropriateness of the research method
- feasibility of research approach
- anticipation of difficulties
What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the originality of the proposal criterion?
- Potential for the creation of new knowledge
- Originality of the proposed research
What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the applicants criterion?
- Qualifications of applicants
- Experience of applicants
- expertise of applicants
- ability to successfully and appropriately disseminate research findings
- appropriateness of the team of applicants
What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the environment for research criterion?
- availability and accessibility of personnel, facilities, and infrastructure
- suitability of the environment to conduct the proposed research
- suitability of the environment for training of personnel
What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the impact of the research criterion?
- research proposal addressed a significant need or gap in health research and/or health care system
- Potential for a significant contribution to the improvement of people’s health in Canada and the World
- Appropriateness and adequacy of the proposed plan for knowledge dissemination and exchange
What are qualities of a compelling study rationale related to health research? (7)
(1) Focuses on a topic or thinking that is particularly novel or innovative
(2) Needed to confirm findings from another study, but in a new setting, population or context
(3) Health issue under study affects a large number of people directly or indirectly
(4) Health issue has serious short of long-term impacts on health and disease outcomes
(5) Health issue is costly financially or otherwise to people and society
(6) Synthesis of existing peer-reviewed studies has pointed to the research question/hypothesis as the logical “next step”
(7) Will lead to a practical opportunity for a prevention program or treatment
What are common mistake in developing a study rationale related to health research? (7)
(1) Research question has left the reader saying “so what?”
(2) Arguments provided in support of research are unclear or vague or incomplete
(3) Failure to frame the research question within a practical context (no real life application)
(4) Failure to review and cite landmark studies that led to the research or synthesize existing literature in a critical manner
(5) Researchers failed to put limits or boundaries on what they would study, unfocused
(6) Review or theory and past work in the field was incomplete or misleading
(7) Arguments and rationale were not focused on the primary research questions
