Module 01

Question 1

What is research?

Answer 1

Research is a systematic investigation for the purpose of discovering and explaining new knowledge. Through research, we answer question, explore and refine ideas, and increase understanding about phenomena (i.e. things that can be observed)

Question 2

What is Epistemology?

Answer 2

Branch of philosophy concerned with answering the question “What is knowledge”

Question 3

Describe empiricism as a “way of knowing”

Answer 3

focus on observations by the senses

Question 4

Describe idealism as a “way of knowing”

Answer 4

focus on intuition

Question 5

Describe rationalism as a “way of knowing”

Answer 5

Combination of observation, theory, and a “system of thinking”

Question 6

Describe constructivism as a “way of knowing”

Answer 6

Recognition that knowledge is generated from subjective representations of objective realities; it is created from and interaction between people’s experiences and ideas

Question 7

Which “ways of knowing” dominate laboratory-based research? (2)

Answer 7

Empiricism and Rationalism

Question 8

Which “way of knowing” is increasingly recognized as key to understanding social determinants of health?

Answer 8

Constructivism

Question 9

What are the 8 steps of the “cycle of inquiry” (research process)?

Answer 9

(1) Make an observation
(2) ask a broad question about the observation
(3) Review previous research
(4) Ask/Refine a question
(5) Formulate objectives
(6) Design the best way to meet objectives
(7) Make an observation
(8) Analyze Data & Report Results

Question 10

Where can observations come from?

Answer 10

What one experiences in nature, clinical settings, or from previous knowledge and readings

Question 11

Why do you need to review previous research?

Answer 11

To know whether or not your question or aspects of it have already been answered

Question 12

What should be included in your ‘refined’ question?

Answer 12

It should be something more specific which include

• Measurable variables
• Specified population

Question 13

Describe the “formulate objectives” step in the cycle of inquiry

Answer 13

You put boundaries on the study you are attempting to conduct

• What are your main goals (objectives)
• What observation you want to test (hypothesis)?

Question 14

What is the contribution of Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar on health research?

Answer 14

Conducted the first known semblance of a medical when he ordered youths of royal blood to eat only red meat and wine vs beans/vegetables and water

Question 15

What is the contribution of Hippocrates on health research?

Answer 15

First recorded rational explanation of disease. Observed that disease occurs at a population level as well as an individual level. He concluded that there must be something in the “air, water, and places” to which populations were exposed that contributed to illness

Question 16

What is the contribution of John Graunt on health? research?

Answer 16

Routinely collected data on births and deaths to quantify patterns of disease in the population, noting sex differences and seasonal variations.
Considered one of the first experts in epidemiology, for generating many of the statistical census methods used today
Book that generated the first statistical estimation of population health in early modern London

Question 17

What is the contribution of Dr John Snow on health research?

Answer 17

Observation during his investigation of a cholera outbreak in London in 1854 played a critical role in the development of public health.
Due to his Dot map he was able to pinpoint the problematic “water pump” and took off the handle so people could no longer use it

Question 18

What is the contribution of Rudolph Virchow on health research?

Answer 18

Work on pathological anatomy revealed that disease manifest itself at the cellular level, not at the organ level. His work launched the field of cellular pathology.
Advocated that the practive of medicine should shift toward systematic clinical observations at the cellular level as opposed to primarily theoretical activity

Question 19

What is the contribution of Emile Durkheim on health research?

Answer 19

One of the first scientist to thoughtfully document patterns of disease outcomes (his research was on suicide) from careful observations of a large case series from his practice.
His work provided a seed to what would later become disease classification for suicide and related disorders

Question 20

What are the contributions of Sir Bradford Hill on health research? (2)

Answer 20

(1) Widely known for Hill’s criteria for determining causal association
(2) Published a preliminary report on cigarette smoke and lung cancer

Question 21

What are three examples of how thinking about health concerns has changed with the acquisition of new knowledge?

Answer 21

(1) autism
(2) AIDS
(3) Palliative care

Question 22

What is etiology?

Answer 22

cause of a disease or condition

Question 23

How have views on the etiology of autism changed through time?

Answer 23

1900s: Autism is a term used to describe a subset of schizophrenic patients who are especially withdrawn
1940s: Leo Kanner proposes parental coldness as a cause
1970s: twin studies point to the contribution of genetics to the cause of autism
1990s: Wakefield and colleagues falsely implicate MMR vaccine as a cause
2000s: Research continues to identify rare genetic mutations as wall as complex gene-environment interaction as causes

Question 24

How have views on AIDS changed due to knowledge?

Answer 24

AIDS was formerly called GRID (gay-related immune deficiency)
Gaetan Dugas was vilified as being Patient 0 who brought the disease to the US in th 1980s
However, research has shown that this disease had been present in the 1970s as well and in California around the same time

Question 25

What is the concept of hospice?

Answer 25

Caring derived from medieval times, symbolizing a place where travelers, pilgrims and the sick, wounded or dying could find rest and comfort

Question 26

How have views on palliative care changed through time?

Answer 26

Historically, palliative care was provided in institutions
In the 1960s, 2 american sociologists (Glaser & Strauss) observed that instituionalized dying led to widespread alienation and isolation. During the same period, Swiss psychiatrist Kubler-Ross conducted interview with dying patients. Conclusion: option to die at home rather than in an institutional setting was needed

Question 27

What are descriptive questions?

Answer 27

Focus on Who/What/When/Where

Question 28

What are explanatory questions?

Answer 28

focus on Why/How

Question 29

What are the 3 main purposes of a literature review?

Answer 29

(1) Situate your question(s) in the field (how has it change over time, What is know, What is not know)
(2) Compare with different disciplinary approaches (epidemiology, sociology, physiology)
(3) Identify possible ways to address your question (eg research methodologies)

Question 30

What are the characteristics of a good research question? (7)

Answer 30

• Not already been answered
• Balanced and without bias
• Grounded in one or more existing fiels or disciplines
• Supported by clear and focused arguments
• Potential to lead to action
• Focused and specific
• Can be answered with the time and resources available

Question 31

What is the issue with the following research question; Has the prevalence of eating disorders in young women changed?

Answer 31

Too broad, you could;

• specify type of eating disorder
• specify target group of “young women”
• indicate time frame for the change

Question 32

What is the issue with the following research question; How many third-trimester still births have been observed at Kingston General Hospital over the past year?

Answer 32

Too focused, this could be answered by a google search

Question 33

What does the acronym SMART stand for?

Answer 33

Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Realistic
Time-bounded

Question 34

Beside having the SMART qualities, what other 2 components must be included in the objective of a study?

Answer 34

The What

The Who

Question 35

Describe objectives

Answer 35

They must be clear, concise declarative statements that are directly related to the study’s statement of purpose
It begins with a verb (To describe, identify, establish, compare, test)

Question 36

To determine whether of not the objectives are effective, what question must be answered? (3)

Answer 36

(1) Do the objectives begin with a ver that indicates how the variable will be measured?
(2) Is the study population specifically identified
(3) Are the variables that will be measured in the research identified?

Question 37

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 37

A statement that stems directly from the research question and therefore reflects previous observations and the study’s rationale. This statement must be testable and falsiable

Question 38

When are hypothesis used?

Answer 38

When the research requires more than a description and comparison. Eg: if the objective starts with “to test”

Question 39

What are the 2 characteristics of an hypothesis?

Answer 39

Testable

falsifiable

Question 40

What is a null hypothesis?

Answer 40

Proposition that undergoes verification to determine if it should be rejected in favour of an alternative proposition.
Typically a statement of the common view of something and what the researcher tries to disprove
Opposite of the alternative hypothesis

Question 41

What is a study rationale?

Answer 41

An argument, or series of arguments, that convince a scientific audience that a particular research question needs to be addressed via a formal study

Question 42

What are the 5 criteria of an effective study rationale?

Answer 42

(1) Research proposal
(2) Originality of proposal
(3) applicants
(4) environment for research
(5) Impact of the research

Question 43

What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the Research approach criterion?

Answer 43

• Clarity of research question
• Completeness of literature review
• clarity of rationale for the research approach/methodology
• Appropriateness of the research design
• appropriateness of the research method
• feasibility of research approach
• anticipation of difficulties

Question 44

What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the originality of the proposal criterion?

Answer 44

• Potential for the creation of new knowledge

- Originality of the proposed research

Question 45

What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the applicants criterion?

Answer 45

• Qualifications of applicants
• Experience of applicants
• expertise of applicants
• ability to successfully and appropriately disseminate research findings
• appropriateness of the team of applicants

Question 46

What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the environment for research criterion?

Answer 46

• availability and accessibility of personnel, facilities, and infrastructure
• suitability of the environment to conduct the proposed research
• suitability of the environment for training of personnel

Question 47

What are some of he characteristics that the CIHR consider for the impact of the research criterion?

Answer 47

• research proposal addressed a significant need or gap in health research and/or health care system
• Potential for a significant contribution to the improvement of people’s health in Canada and the World
• Appropriateness and adequacy of the proposed plan for knowledge dissemination and exchange

Question 48

What are qualities of a compelling study rationale related to health research? (7)

Answer 48

(1) Focuses on a topic or thinking that is particularly novel or innovative
(2) Needed to confirm findings from another study, but in a new setting, population or context
(3) Health issue under study affects a large number of people directly or indirectly
(4) Health issue has serious short of long-term impacts on health and disease outcomes
(5) Health issue is costly financially or otherwise to people and society
(6) Synthesis of existing peer-reviewed studies has pointed to the research question/hypothesis as the logical “next step”
(7) Will lead to a practical opportunity for a prevention program or treatment

Question 49

What are common mistake in developing a study rationale related to health research? (7)

Answer 49

(1) Research question has left the reader saying “so what?”
(2) Arguments provided in support of research are unclear or vague or incomplete
(3) Failure to frame the research question within a practical context (no real life application)
(4) Failure to review and cite landmark studies that led to the research or synthesize existing literature in a critical manner
(5) Researchers failed to put limits or boundaries on what they would study, unfocused
(6) Review or theory and past work in the field was incomplete or misleading
(7) Arguments and rationale were not focused on the primary research questions