Module 0 ( Pre-Course Revision/Neuroanatomy Activities )

Question 1

Identify & List:

What are the four orientations for describing brain regions depicted in the image below?

Used with sagital/side-on view of brain

Note: there are two common names for each

Answer 1

• Superior (Dorsal)
• Inferior (Ventral)
• Rostral (Anterior)
• Caudal (Posterior)

These also apply as general anatomy terms for different bodily regions, or when viewing an organism overall

Question 2

Identify & List:

What are the two orientations for describing brain regions depicted in the image below?

Used with topical view of brain

Note: Left and Right have the same answer/term

Answer 2

Structures located closer to the sagital plane/midline of the brain are medial .

Structures located closer to the peripheral regions of the brain are lateral.

The sagital plane separates the left and right hemispheres

Question 3

Describe:

A horizontal slice and what kind of view it gives of the brain

Answer 3

A horizontal slice separates dorsal/ventral regions and allows a topical view of both hemispheres of the brain

Typically this allows you to view and/or to contrast the medial/lateral nature of certain subcortical structures

Question 4

Define & Describe:

What is a coronal slice and what kind of view does it give of the brain?

Answer 4

A coronal slice separates anterior/posterior regions and allows a view from in-front or behind of both hemispheres of the brain

Typically this allows you to view and/or to contrast the medial/lateral nature of certain subcortical structures

Question 5

Define & Describe:

What is a sagittall slice and what kind of view does it give of the brain?

Answer 5

A sagittall slice separates the left and right hemispheres and allows a side-on view of one half at a time

This allows a more detailed/closer view of certain subcortical structures in either hemisphere

Question 6

Identify:

Ridges formed by the complex folding of the cerebral cortex are called ______

Answer 6

Gyri (plural)

Gyrus (singular)

Question 7

Identify:

Grooves formed by the complex folding of the cerebral cortex are called ______

Answer 7

Sulci (plural)

Sulcus (singular)

Question 8

Describe:

What is the advantage of a convoluted cortex?

Answer 8

An increase in surface area per volume

This allows greater surface area for biochemical processes/reactions as well as enabling a ‘larger’ organ to fit into a smaller skull

Question 9

Describe:

The three major functions associated with the frontal lobe

Answer 9

• Voluntary Movement
• Expressive Language
• Higher-Cognitive Skills
  (e.g. Executive Functioning)

(pink region)

Disturbances are often seen in many psychiatric patients (such as those with depression, anxiety disorders, and schizophrenia

Question 10

Describe:

The THREE major functions of the parietal lobe.

Answer 10

• Processing & Interpretting Somatosensory Input
• Sensory Input Integration
• Construction of Spatial Representations

(yellow region)

Defecits in the parietal cortex are seen in patients such as those with autism spectrum disorders

Question 11

Describe:

The occipital lobe is associated with which major functions?

Answer 11

• Processing Visual Information
• Perception

(Of colour, form, motion, etc.)

(purple region)

Question 12

Describe:

The FOUR major functions associated with the temporal lobe

Answer 12

• Processing Auditory Information
• Encoding Memory
• Processing Affect & Emotions
• Involved in Language and Visual Perception (some parts)

(green region)

Defecits in the temporal lobe are characteristic/observed in patients with schizophrenia

Question 13

Define & Describe:

The THREE major functions the cerebellum is associated with.

Answer 13

• Coordination of Voluntary (Fine) Motor Control
• Balance & Equilibrium
• Involved in Cognitive Functioning
  (more recent evidence suggesting this)

(grey region)

Disturbances in this region have been found associated with schizophrenia and ADHD

Question 14

Fill-in-the-Blank(s):

Structure A is the ____, while structure B is the ____.
Structure C refers to the ____ and structure D points at the ____.

(using image provided)

Answer 14

1. cingulate cortex
2. thalamus
3. hypothalamus
4. amygdala

Question 15

Fill-in-the-Blank(s):

Structure A is the ____, while structure B is the ____.
Structure C refers to a ____ and structure D points at the ____.

(using image provided)

Answer 15

1. Putamen
2. Globus Pallidus
3. Subthalamic Nucleus
4. Substantia Nigra

Question 16

Fill-in-the-Blank(s):

____ is mainly involved in executive functioning, while ____ is mediated by the cerebellum.

(Cortical Regions)

Answer 16

1. The frontal cortex
2. (fine) motor coordination

Question 17

Fill-in-the-Blank(s):

Heightened dopamine release plays a crucial role in ____, while ____ are associated with changes in serotonin.

(Mental Afflictions)

Answer 17

1. drug addiction
2. mood disorders

Question 18

Fill-in-the-Blank(s):

Reductions in dopamine in the ____ are found in patients with ____, while an overactivity of glutamate is found in ____.

(Structure and mental afflictions)

Answer 18

1. basal ganglia
2. parkinson’s disease
3. epilepsy

Question 19

Describe:

What is the purpose Tuberoinfundibular (Dopamine) Pathway?

And where is its location in the brain?

Answer 19

The release of dopamine from this pathway into the bloodstream inhibits the pituitary gland from releasing prolactin (hormone)

Its cell bodies are located in the arcuate nucleus, with axons leading to the median eminence (both are parts of the hypothalamus).

Question 20

Describe:

Outline the location of neurons comprising the Mesolimbic (Dopamine) Pathway:

Answer 20

The mesolimbic pathway has its cell bodies in the ventral tegmental area. From here, the axons travel to the nucleus accumbens, also known as the ventral striatum.

Question 21

Describe:

Outline the location of neurons comprising the Nigrostriatal (Dopamine) Pathway:

Answer 21

The nigrostriatal pathway has its cell bodies in the so-called Substantia Nigra pars compacta (SNc) in the midbrain. From here axons run to the dorsal striatum (a part of the basal ganglia).

Question 22

Describe:

Outline the location of neurons comprising the Mesocortical (Dopamine) Pathway:

Answer 22

The Mesocortical pathway has its cell bodies in the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain. From here the axons travel to the cortex, innervating mainly the prefrontal and cingulate cortex.

Question 23

Describe:

Where are the dopaminergic cell bodies found?

Answer 23

The dopaminergic cell bodies are mainly located in the substantia nigra pars compacta (more lateral) and the ventral tegmental area (more medial).

Nigra means black, and it refers to the fact that the dopaminergic cells are considerably darker than the surrounding cells (due to the high concentration of neuromelanin in the cells)

Question 24

Describe:

How does dopamine relate to Parkinson’s disease?

Answer 24

Deterioration of cell bodies in the substantia nigra leads to the reduction of dopamine transmission within the basal ganglia

In patients, this leads to very characteristic motor symptoms, such as rigidity (stiffness) of the muscles, tremor (shaking of the extremities, particularly during rest) and brdadykinesia (slowness of movement). in addition, patients often have a stooped posture and a slowness and inflexibility of thinking as well.

Question 25

Describe

What is dopamine’s role in addiction?

Answer 25

1. Addictive substances cause euphoria through activation of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system
2. Prolonged exposure leads to dampening/waning of initial euphoric feelings
3. Compulsive use begins and an increase in the dopamine release from the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system is seen

Question 26

Define:

Raphe Nuclei

Answer 26

Clusters of sertonergic cell bodies located in the midbrain

The axons of these cell bodies project to essentially all other brain regions

Question 27

Identify:

Where is the vast majority of serotonin present?

About 95% of serotonin

Answer 27

Outside of the CNS, mostly in the blood and gastrointestinal system

Serotonin, also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (and usually abbreviated as 5-HT), is one of the oldest neurotransmitters in the brain.

Serotonin can interact with 14 different receptors (belonging to seven different families). With the exception of the 5-HT3 receptors, all the other receptors belong to the metabotropic (G-protein coupled receptor) class.

Question 28

Identify:

Which disorders are associated with disturbances in serotonin?

Note: Changes in serotonin (as well as other NTs) in psychiatric disorders are often very ‘dynamic’. This means is has been very difficult to unequivocally “prove” an association betwene disturbanced 5-HT functioning and psychiatric disorders.

Answer 28

• Depression
• Anxiety
• Autism Spectrum

Drugs that affect the serotoniergic system are known to improve symptoms in these disorders.

Question 29

Identify:

The dysfucntioning of which neurotransmitter is associated with epilepsy and (potentially) schizophrenia?

Answer 29

Glutamate; a major excitatory neurotransmitter.

An overactive glutamatergic system would like contribute to increased activation of brain regions as is characteristic for epilepsy.

Question 30

Identify:

Which three brain regions are key glutamate pathway locations?

Answer 30

1. Basal ganglia
2. Thalamus
3. Corticofugal Pathways

1. Glutamate is a prominent neurotransmitter connecting the subthalamic nucleus with the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra. Additionally, fibers from the cortex to the stritum use glutamate as their neurotransmitter.
2. Both the fibers from the cortex to the thalamus, as well as those from the thalamus to the cortex use glutamate as a neurotransmitter
3. Glutamate is the main neurotransmitter in cells that project from the cerebral cortex to other brain regions.