Modes of Data Collection

Question 1

Different methods of data collection

Answer 1

• Observation/ethnographic field notes
• Case studies
• Interviews and oral histories (semi-structured)
• Focus groups
• Diaries (written and video)
• Media data
• Documents/ archives
• Internet data
• ‘Naturally occurring’ data

Question 2

Ethnography

Answer 2

Immersion in a particular field
• Examine a group or phenomena for an extended period of time
• Observing behaviour, listening to conversations
• Active participation – asking questions, taking part

Question 3

Meta data/documents

Answer 3

• Newspapers
• TV programmes
• Radio programmes

Question 4

Diaries and documentaries

Answer 4

• Diaries are often used in health psychology
• Participant set a task to complete (e.g. write about their experience of illness)
• Could have been produced prior to the research
• Documents – letters and autobiographies

Question 5

Internet-mediated research

Answer 5

• Publicly available data from the Internet growing area of research
• Data taken off public websites (e.g. Pro anorexia website)
• Problems – issue of ethics – best practice to seek consent
• BPS – Ethics Guidelines for Internet-Mediated Research (2017)

Question 6

Naturally occurring data

Answer 6

• Some qualitative researchers argue that data should be ‘naturally occurring’ (e.g. mealtime conversations).
• This means that it has been produced WITHOUT the intervention of a researcher.
• For instance, discursive psychologists have suggested a move away from interview data (Potter & Hepburn, 2005).

Question 7

Semi-structured interview

Answer 7

• Most widely used method of data collection in qualitative research
• Compatible with several methods of data analysis
• Easier to arrange than other methods
• Not always easy to conduct
• Requires careful preparation and planning

Question 8

Characteristics of interview

Answer 8

• Opportunity to hear participant talk about a particular aspect of their life or experience
• Questions function as triggers that encourage talk (but need prompts!)
• Non-directive (although interviewer drives the research question)
• Steer interview to obtain kind of data that will answer the research question
• Right balance between control and freedom for participant to go ‘off track’ – generate novel insights

Question 9

interviews - issues to consider

Answer 9

• What questions to ask to get at your research question/focus
• Who & how to recruit?
• Where to interview?
• How to record the interview
• How to transcribe the interview

Question 10

interview schedule

Answer 10

• Guides (not dictates) the interview
• Forces you to think explicitly about what you hope to cover
• Enables you to think about potential difficulties
• Qualitative researchers tend to argue that rapport is important
• It is important to frame your questions in a way participants will understand
• Your aim is to hear their story so you don’t have to stick rigidly to your questions

Question 11

Constructing the semi-structured interview schedule

Answer 11

• Think about the broad range of themes want to cover
• Put questions from these themes in the most logical order
• Think of appropriate questions related to each area – sequence questions
• Think of probes/prompts
• If you are covering a sensitive issue, leave these questions until later

Question 12

Types of questions

Answer 12

Descriptive
• We want the participant to provide an account of something

Structural
• How does the participant organise their knowledge – how do they make sense of the topic
• you are studying?

Contrast
• Good idea to ask the participant to make comparisons between events and experiences

Evaluative
• What are their feelings towards someone/something?

Probing
Can you explain that more? You said xxx, can you tell me what you meant?

Question 13

Questions to avoid

Answer 13

• Closed question – which produce yes/no answers
• Two-in-one questions – confusing and participants forget one part
• Try not to ask value laden questions
• Avoid jargon
• Questions that don’t make any sense!

Question 14

Conducting the interview

Answer 14

• Read through your interview schedule aloud to check it makes sense before undertaking an interview.
• Become familiar with your schedule but take it with you to use as a guide.
• Relax the participant beforehand, don’t rush the process.
• Check your recording equipment is working.
• Be prepared for your questions to be answered before you ask them!
• Respond to what is said and monitor the effect on interviewee.

Question 15

Keeping records

Answer 15

• Research diary useful tool
• Systematic labeling of data
• Reminder of event
• Start of analytic procedure
• Informs later interviews
• You still need demographic details of your participants (age, sex, occupation, ethnicity, etc.)

Question 16

focus groups

Answer 16

• A group of people (ideally 4-8) recruited under some remit e.g. young people discussing sexting.
• Useful for informal group discussions that are ‘focused’ on a particular topic or set of issues
• Based around a focus group schedule - your job is to facilitate GROUP discussion between the participants
• Evidence suggests that the group context actually facilitates personal disclosures.
• A good method for (a) eliciting people’s own understandings and viewpoints, and (b) for observing how these viewpoints are advanced, elaborated and negotiated in a social context.

Question 17

issues of focus groups

Answer 17

Participants
• How many in a group? How many groups? Recruitment?
• An Organised & Engaging Schedule
• Questions? Tasks? What data do you want?
Session Preparation?
Wilkinson, S. (2004). Focus Groups. In J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative Psychology. London: Sage.
Ethics
• Permission? Confidentiality is trickier

Question 18

ethical considerations for qual research

Answer 18

• We consider similar issues as in quantitative research (informed consent, right to withdraw, confidentiality, anonymity, security of data)
• BUT we are working, typically closely, with participants’ words, audio and video so more care is needed.
• We present data in reports so we need to use pseudonyms and change any identifying features.
• Each mode of data collection has its own challenges.
• Have to think of these right from the planning stage of your study
• Will you be able to access the right people?
• Are participants particularly vulnerable?
• Do you have the skills to handle difficulties? (E.g. if they become upset, if they disclose some abuse to you.)
• Check if participants want to stop, withdraw etc.
• Your job is to think about issues and develop appropriate protocols.