Modern Mecidine Flashcards
How did technology help with development in understanding DNA
The electron microscope and improvements of x-ray machines using crystallography which uses radiation to take high-power x-ray photographs
What theory and when did Mendel develop
1900 developed a theory that genes come in pairs. Called this theory the fundamental laws of inheritance. However he couldn’t scientifically prove this
When and what did Watson and Crick discover
They were working on DNA in 1953 and they discovered the structure of DNA and proved it was in every human cell that it passed information from parent to children
What limitation came with Watson and Crick’s discovery
They could not identify which genes caused which disease
It was also a very expensive discovery
What limitation came with the human genome project
It took 15 years to complete
How did government help Watson and Crick make their discoveries
It was financed mainly by government grants giving them a large team, and the best equipment required
How did science and technology help Watson and Crick make their discoveries
-They had Maurice Wilkins who was an x-ray specialist
-And Rosalind Franklin who develop the technique to photograph a single strand of DNA
-Had the best equipment and worked with biochemistry specialists
How did science and technology help the human genome project
Because of the development of the internet data collected by teams from all around the world could be sent easily
When did the Human Genome Project start and what was its aim
In 1986 to identify the exact purpose of each gene in the human body
How many countries were involved in the Human Genome Project and give some examples
18 countries such as : USA, Britain Japan, France and Canada
How did the human genome project and the discovery help medicine
It allowed scientists to identify where there were mistakes in peoples genes and what disease this would lead to, opening up the opportunities for the development of new treatment and prevention techniques.
Give an example of a treatment that was able to be created due to DNA discovery
For example scientists are now able to identify the genes relating to breast cancer and can take preventative to reduce the risk of developing this. Angelina Jolie chose to have mastectomy because her mother had died of breast cancer.
How did lifestyle and health cause disease in the 20th century
How did smoking cause illness and disease in the 20th century
-The dangers of smoking were not identified until the 1950s due to there being an increase in lung cancer
-Smoking was eventually linked to a range of diseases including cancer, high blood pressure, gum disease, heart disease and tooth decay
How did diet cause illness and disease in the 20th century
-Too much fat and sugar was recognised to be dangerous for peoples health. As they can cause heart disease and diabetes type 2
-Continued from when the 4 humours theory was popular and people began to realise diet was important for good health
-Not getting enough food/nutrients can also be detrimental to a person’s health
What things other than diet and smoking caused illness in the 20th century
-Excess drinking of alcohol caused problems such as liver disease and kidney problems
-People sharing bodily fluids through syringes or unprotected sex could spread disease
-Too much UV light can cause skin cancer
How has technology developed preventative and diagnostic techniques in modern medicine (overview)
-The use of technology improves diagnosis as new computers and machines allow doctors to get a better understanding of patients’ symptoms. Doctors are now able to identify illness and disease at an early stage which they can prevent it from becoming life threatening
How have blood tests improved diagnosis and when were they developed
-Using blood samples to test for large number of conditions without the need for invasive diagnosis methods
-1930s
How have blood pressure monitors improved diagnosis and when were they developed
-Help diagnose high and low blood pressures
-In the 1880s
How have endoscopes improved diagnosis and when were they developed
-Camera on end of thin flexible tube to see inside of the human body and can investigate digestive symptoms and can carry surgical instruments to body
-1900s
How have blood sugar monitoring improved diagnosis and when were they developed
-Allow people who suffer from diabetes to check their blood sugar regularly to ensure they manage their condition
-1960s
How have X-rays improved diagnosis and when were they developed
-Helps to see inside the human body without cutting into it. Since start of 20th century help diagnose problems such as broken bones
-1890s
How have MRI scans improved diagnosis and when were they developed
-Use magnets and radio waves to create an internal image of the body and help diagnose soft tissue injuries and ligament damage.
-1970s
How have CT scans improved diagnosis and when were they developed
-More advanced form of x-rays can diagnose tumours and other growths in the body
-1970s
How have ultrasound scans improved diagnosis and when were they developed
-Use sound waves to build up picture of inside of the body. Can diagnose things like gall and kidney stones
-1940s
How has the government improved prevention and diagnosis (outline)
-By the end of the 19th century the government have a greater role in the prevention of disease within it’s population
-Laissez-faire attitudes of the 19th century were gone as scientists worked out what actually caused poor health
-They understood it’s actions could have a direct impact on health
How did mass vaccinations help develop preventative and diagnostic techniques
They introduced nationwide vaccine programmes such as;
Polio (1956), Tetanus (1961), German measles (1968), rubella (1970), HPV and covid-19
They are effective in preventing illness and disease
What is a limitation on mass vaccines
Some people are unsure about them and do not want the government enforcing them to get them,
How has legislation improved diagnosis and prevention
-Clean air acts introduced in 1956 and 1968
-Burning of coal fires was banned and smog is no longer a problem in the U.K.
-Smoking was banned in enclosed workplaces by the Health Act of 2006, and then banned indoors in 2007
How have lifestyle campaign improved diagnosis and prevention
-Government promoting healthy lifestyle campaigns saves money and improved people heskth
-E.g. anti-smoking, binge drinking and unprotected sex and drug use
-Change4life to promote healthy eating and couch to 5k to get more people active
Outline blood transfusions and how has it improved medical treatment
-1901 Karl Landsteiner discovered blood groups, making transitions possible if the donor was in the same place
-Not possible to store blood until WW1.
-During WW1 it was seen adding sodium citrate stopped blood from clotting
-Allowed people who have large injuries not to die from blood loss
Outline X-rays and how has it improved medical treatment
-1895 Röntgen discovered X-rays and within months they were being used on hospitals. -During WW1 they were used to locate shrapnel and bullets in soldiers
-Used to identify broken bones, foreign objects in hospitals today so people can be treated for them
Outline radiotherapy and chemotherapy and how has it improved medical treatment
-Mary and Pierre Curie researched the use of X-rays and discovered radium which now can be used to diagnose and treat cancer so they can have a better chance at living if their diagnose is recognised.
Outline Transplant surgery and how has it improved medical treatment
-In 1954 the first kidneys and in 1963 liver was transplanted. In 1967 the first heart transplant was completed by Dr Barnard. In 1982 the first heart and lung transplant took place.
-This means people have improved people’s chances of survival if they contract diseases that affect organs
Outline customised drugs and how they have improved medical treatment
-New drugs are being developed that take into account somebody’s DNA and can be made especially for them so more specific and less know illnesses can be killed
Outline gene therapy and how has it improved medical treatment
-Takes genes from a donor and places them in the DNA of a patient and using stem cells from embryos it will be possible to reverse some illnesses and there is a major ethical debate
-Allows doctors to reverse illness meaning more people can be cured and may result in further developments
Outline dialysis machines and how has it improved medical treatment
They act as kidneys for people, keeping them alive until they get a transplant so they keep people alive meaning they have the chance to get a transplant
Outline plastic surgery and how has it improved medical treatment
Both world wars lead to rapid improvements in this field and 11,000 were carried out by surgeons due to burn cases in WW2.
Outline keyhole and micro-surgery and how has it improved medical treatment
-Surgeons cut into the body through holes as small as possible using an endoscope which is controlled by the surgeon. Surgeons can rejoin blood vessels and nerves using miniature cameras, fibre optic cables and computers. This can restore use of damaged limbs.
Outline improved anaesthetic and how has it improved medical treatment
During the 1930s Helmuth Wesse developed developed anaesthetics that could be injected in the blood stream allowing more precise and safer doses and longer operations
Outline heart pace makers and how has it improved medical treatment
Can help individuals hearts working correctly, allowing people to live for longer with heart conditions
How was aspirin developed and how did it improve treatment for people
It was extracted from willow bark as it was known to cure fevers and provide mild pain relief
How did large businesses help to develop the pharmaceutical industry
Companies such as Boots and Beechams invested in research equipment to mass produce drugs and they supplied drugs to people around the world by using new technology to promote and produce them
How was Salvarsan 606 found and what did it treat
It treats syphilis and was found in 1909 by a team of scientists led by Paul Ehrlich who had previously worked with Koch. One of his team discovered the compound worked and could kill the bacteria causing syphilis. However too much could kill patients as it contained arsenic.
What was and how was Prontosil discovered
It could treat blood infections and was discovered when Gerhard Domagk noticed the chemical worked on mice and when his daughter developed blood poisoning he tested it on her and she survived. Scientists at the Louis Pasteur Institute in Paris worked out that Prontosil stopped bacteria from multiplying so the body’s immune system had change to kill it
What was the antibiotic which treated Winston Churchill for pneumonia called and what was the problem with it
M&B 693
It only worked if the infection was not too far advanced and too much could be fatsl
Why were Prontosil and Salvarsan 607 called magic bullets
It targeted the specific bacteria and destroyed only that
How have antibiotics developed modern treatments
Uses microorganisms to fight bacterial infections
E.g. penicillin and and Streptomycin which could be used to treat tuberculosis
-During 1950s and 1960s many antibiotic treatments were developed and they saved millions of lives around the world
-Some have developed resistances (e.g. MRSA)
-free to all due to the NHS and pharmaceutical companies still are researching and discovering antibiotics
What experience and motivation did Fleming have
He worked in the battle hospitals in France during the First World War. Seeing the soldiers dying due to simple infections motivated him to find a way to be able to treat them
What did Fleming discover in 1928
Discovered mould in one of his petri dishes killed off the harmful staphylococcus bacteria. It was identified as penicillin which he developed to kill bacteria without harming cells by diluting it.
Why was Fleming’s discovery limited
Limited as it didn’t work on deeper infections and took a long time to produce enough penicillin to use. Also had no evidence of its use as it had not been tested on animals
What did Fleming publish in 1929 and how was it limited
He wrote about penicillin in a medical journal however he had not tested it on animals so had no evidence of its use, so nobody saw it as important.
How and when did Florey and Chain help the development of penicillin
-Read Fleming’s article and realised it could be effective and tried to get funding
-Didn’t get money from government due to war and having no evidence
-Money from US which was enough to pay for 5 years worth of research
When was the first testing of penicillin on mice and what did Florey and Chain discover
1940 - Florey and Chain discovered it helped mice recover but they needed 3000 times as much to treat a human and nobody could afford to fund this. They began to grow it themselves.
Outline the first penicillin testing on a human
In 1941 there was enough penicillin grown to test on a human and a policeman (Albert Alexander) volunteered as he developed septicaemia from a small cut. when he was injected he quickly showed signs of recovery but there wasn’t enough penicillin to cure him so they extracted it from his urine. Only could be done a certain amount of times and he ended up dying but proved penicillin was effective
How was the second world war important for the development of penicillin
-Factories were being used for war so couldn’t mass produce penicillin.
-After US entered the war post pearl harbour they realised the potential of penicillin treating soldiers and made loaned for expensive equipment.
-By D-Day there was enough to treat all allied casualties -over 2.3 million doses
How did Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin help develop penicillin
She mapped the chemical structure in 1945 so scientists could work on synthetic versions that were slightly modified to treat specific diseases. Confidence in medical treatments began to rise and patients were more willing to seek out treatment from doctors.
How did access to healthcare change in 1902
Training for midwives made compulsory
How did access to healthcare change in 1907 (babies)
All births reported to the officer of health and health checks for babies
How did access to healthcare change in 1907 (children in school)
Nurses required to carry out medical checks on children in schools
How did access to healthcare change in 1911
NIA provided help for ill workers and it required workers, employers and the government to pay into a sickness fund. When i’ll a worker could claim 10 shillings a week for up to 26 weeks and free medical care.
What was a limitation on the National Insurance Act
It didn’t include care for the elderly, the unemployed, women or children
How did access to healthcare change in 1912
Clinics have children free medical treatment
How did access to healthcare change in 1919 (Ministry of Health)
Ministry of Health set up and the first government department to have an overview of health throughout the country
How did access to healthcare change in 1919 (The Nursing Act)
-Set up a General Nursing Council to enforce nursing standards
How did the Boer War show problems with British Health and what was changed in response
1/3 of the volunteers for the army were rejected due to poor health worrying they government and it made. them think more about improving healthcare. The Liberal Government from 1906-14 carried out changes aimed at improving access to healthcare for the poor.
What problems were there with healthcare before the NHS
-Women not given free healthcare
-Not everyone lived near a hospital
-Some people weren’t able to afford healthcare
Why did democracy mean the NHS was introduced
All men and women over 21 had the vote after 1928 and new voters expected the government to make change to benefit them
How did war mean the NHS was introduced
WW2 gave people a sense of togetherness so it was thought everyone should have equal access to healthcare. Some free health care was already given during the war. People also wanted to feel their sacrifices in the war was worth it.
What did the Beveridge Report in 1942 suggest about healthcare
Recommended NHS that is free to all and paid for with taxes. Medical staff paid for by the government and national insurance payments should cover benefits (for sick, old and unemployment)
How did people feel about the Beveridge Report
-People queued to buy copies of the report and 600,000 were sold showing peoples enthusiasm towards it
-Doctors were against it due to loss of earning so minister of health assured them they could work privately and for the NHS
What made the NHS so revolutionary (6 points)
-Range of treatments like dentists, ambulances blood transfusions and other specialists
-Improved life expectancy especially for women and children
-Introduced more hospitals to the North of England
-Funding for more training for more specialist skills (e.g. nurses, gynaecologists, neonatologists)
-Care Quality Commission checks and enforces standards and helps prevents illnesses developing in hospitals
-Family doctors so every person provided with own General Practitioner
At first what was the problem with the NHS
Too many people went to the hospitals so quality of care went down
What causes lung cancer
-Smoking tobacco or secondhand smoke
-Getting older
-Dangerous substances (e.g. asbestos)
What is lung cancer and what are the two types
-When abnormal cell division that is very rapid takes place in the lungs
-15% is small cell lung cancer
-90% is non small cell
How was lung cancer diagnosed before technological development
-Using an X-ray machines a doctor would look for a tumour
-This wasn’t ideal as other things such as lung abscesses might have been mistaken for cancer
-Or cancer was mistaken for something less threatening
Why is it had to treat lung cancer
Usually by the time the cancer is detected it is very far on as patients often mistake their cancer for other diseases
-There is no national screening so people aren’t routinely tested for it as they aren’t accurate enough to outweigh the negative effects of the lung cancer (exposure to radiation)
Initially how is lung cancer diagnosed
-Patients are likely to be given a CT scan
-Creates a more detailed picture of the inside of the body
-Patients are usually injected with a dye before the scan takes place and it helps the lungs to show up more clearly on the scan
After the CT scan what are the two methods doctors can use to diagnose lung cancer
-If the cancer doesn’t look very advanced the patient will be given a PET-CT scan which is like a CT scan except a small amount of radioactive material is injected into the body instead of dye so doctors can identify the cancerous cells in the body
-Or will be given a bronchoscopy where the bronchoscope is passed into the lungs and collects a sample of cells for testing
What is done after either PET scan or bronchoscopy
-The doctor will be able to determine the type of cancer the patient has and how advanced it is and this makes it possible to draw up a treatment plane to attack the cancer.
How do transplants treat lung cancer
It is possible to replace cancerous lungs with transplant from a healthy donor and there is an ethical debate on who deserves these lungs due to causes of lung cancer
How does surgery treat lung cancer
Small piece or an entire lung can be removed to remove tumour or infected part
How does radiotherapy treat lung cancer
-Concentrated waves of radiation are aimed at tumour to shrink it and can prevent larger tumours from growing
How does chemotherapy treat lung cancer
-Patients are injected with many drugs to shrink the tumour, provide relief from symptoms or prevent cancer from reoccurring
How does genetic research treat lung cancer
-Some chemotherapy drugs work better in lung cancer patients whose tumours have a certain mutation and genes try help doctors prescribe a more effective treatment
What action was taken against smoking in 2007 and how would this help reduce lung cancer
Smoking banned in all workplaces and people no longer allowed to smoke pubs, cafes, restaurants or offices this meant people can’t smoke as much and less people will be affected by second-hand smoke
What action was taken against smoking in 2017 and how would this help reduce lung cancer
The legal age for buying cigarettes was raised to from 16 to 18. People don’t start smoking as young so will be safer from the effects of smoking
What action was taken against smoking in 2015 and how would this help reduce lung cancer
Smoking was banned in all cars carrying children so they won’t be affected by second hand smoke
How has taxation been used to reduce the risk of lung cancer
Higher taxation on tobacco products so less people will buy them
What action was taken against smoking in 1965 and how would this help reduce lung cancer
Cigarette advertising on TV banned so people will buy and use them so less people will have an increased risk of getting lung cancer
What action was taken against smoking in 2005 and how would this help reduce lung cancer
Less people will be aware of where they are sold so less people will be tempted to smoke
How do government campaigns reduce lung cancer
Advertising the danger of smoking has highlighted the impact it has on pregnant women and the chemicals in cigarettes so people may be deterred from them if they negatively affect their health
What action was taken against smoking in 2012 and how would this help reduce lung cancer
All cigarettes have been removed so less people will know where they are sold and will not buy them
