Modern History - Power and Authority Flashcards
Background info
G— lacked the r— required to fight a prolonged w— and the isolation imposed by the British b— of German p— by the Royal N— meant that there were chronic s— of raw m—
Germany lacked the resources required to fight a prolonged war and the isolation imposed by the British blockade of German ports by the Royal Navy meant that there were chronic shortages of raw materials
Background info
G— was cut off from supplies of m—, and vital items like r— and p—
Germany was cut off from supplies of metals, and vital items like rubber and petroleum
Background info
Also, before 1—, about one t— of Germany’s f— supplies had been i—
Also, before 1914, about one third of Germany’s food supplies had been imported
Background info
The g— tried to manage the f— shortage crisis by imposing p— controls and r—. Meat could only be eaten on 5 d— of a w—, turnips and potatoes were mixed with flour to make bread and bread was rationed from 1—
The government tried to manage the food shortage crisis by imposing price controls and rationing. Meat could only be eaten on 5 days of a week, turnips and potatoes were mixed with flour to make bread and bread was rationed from 1915
Background info
However, a severe w— and bad h— in 1— resulted in even more severe food shortages and food r— occurred.
However, a severe winter and bad harvest in 1916 resulted in even more severe food shortages and food riots occurred.
Background info
By 1—, the food shortage was acute; m— consumption was only 1— of pre-war levels and f— consumption was at 5—.
By 1918, the food shortage was acute; meat consumption was only 12% of pre-war levels and fish consumption was at 5%.
Background info
S—, d— and h— because of fuel shortages were common in G— by the end of the war
Starvation, disease and hypothermia because of fuel shortages were common in Germany by the end of the war
Political consequences
P—, W— had huge and dramatic consequences in G—
Politically, WWI had huge and dramatic consequences in Germany
Political consequences
K— W— position began to c— soon after the outbreak of hostilities and by 1— he had been reduced to a f—
Kaiser Wilhelm’s position began to crumble soon after the outbreak of hostilities and by 1916 he had been reduced to a figurehead
Political consequences
Also Chancellor B—H— position d— as the stalemate on the W— F— continued – he was forced from office in 1—
Also Chancellor Bethman-Hollweg’s position deteriorated as the stalemate on the Western Front continued – he was forced from office in 1917
Political consequences
In A— 1—, after the failure of V—, the German Army was taken over by General L— and Field Marshall von H—
In August 1916, after the failure of Verdun, the German Army was taken over by General Ludendorff and Field Marshall von Hindenburg
Political consequences
These 2 men would not only d— Germany’s m— strategy through the rest of the war but would also come to have significant p— power and i— – H— continued to dominate the R— into the 1—
These 2 men would not only dominate Germany’s military strategy through the rest of the war but would also come to have significant political power and influence – Hindenburg continued to dominate the Reichstag into the 1930s
Severe Restrictions
Under m— leadership, any hope for p— reform in G— was crushed; restrictions were imposed on the right of a—, very tight controls were placed on T— U— representing workers, striking workers were sent to the f— l— and all anti-war material was b—
Under military leadership, any hope for political reform in Germany was crushed; restrictions were imposed on the right of assembly, very tight controls were placed on Trade Unions representing workers, striking workers were sent to the front lines and all anti-war material was banned
Severe Restrictions
In 1— there had been no strikes, in 1— there were 1— workers on strike per m—, in 1— 5— per m— and in 1—, 1— per m—
In 1914 there had been no strikes, in 1915 there were 1000 workers on strike per month, in 1917 50 000 per month and in 1918, 100 000 per month
Severe Restrictions
In 1__, the official cost of living had risen by 2—, wages had not kept up with the i— and there was a deterioration in q— and q— of consumer goods; textiles, food, shoes and this led to p— among w—
In 1918, the official cost of living had risen by 200%, wages had not kept up with the increase and there was a deterioration in quality and quantity of consumer goods; textiles, food, shoes and this led to poverty among workers
Severe Restrictions
The G— S— P— (SPD), the largest party in the R— had supported the government war effort through to 1—
The German Socialist Party (SPD), the largest party in the Reichstag had supported the government war effort through to 1917
Political opposition
April 1— a breakaway Independent S— Democratic Party (USPD) formed and they were totally o— to the war. At the same time the S— League formed and o— the war. The S— wanted to encourage the German people to have a working-class r—
April 1917 a breakaway Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD) formed and they were totally opposed to the war. At the same time the Spartacist League formed and opposed the war. The Spartacists wanted to encourage the German people to have a working-class revolution
Political opposition
In J— 1—, 400 000 m— workers went on strike in B— – this threatened to cripple Germany’s a— production. Strikes spread to other cities and over 1 m— were soon on strike
In January 1918, 400 000 munitions workers went on strike in Berlin – this threatened to cripple Germany’s arms production. Strikes spread to other cities and over 1 million were soon on strike
Political opposition
The R— passed a P— Resolution to end the war but this was o— by H— and L—, who formed a right wing party – The F— Party, and were military d— ruling Germany
The Reichstag passed a Peace Resolution to end the war but this was opposed by Hindenburg and Ludendorff, who formed a right wing party – The Fatherland Party, and were military dictators ruling Germany
Political opposition
Following the failure of L— S— Offensive in July 1— and the German Army’s collapse, L— accepted that Germany had been d—.
Following the failure of Ludendorff’s Spring Offensive in July 1918 and the German Army’s collapse, Ludendorff accepted that Germany had been defeated.
Political opposition
President W— of the U— insisted that p— could only be negotiated between d—
President Wilson of the USA insisted that peace could only be negotiated between democracies
Political opposition
L— demanded that Germany be transformed into a d— so that the blame for the defeat in W— could be shifted from the military to the p—
Ludendorff demanded that Germany be transformed into a democracy so that the blame for the defeat in WWI could be shifted from the military to the politicians
Political opposition
H— and L— did not believe in d— but they blamed the striking workers for the defeat and the p— for signing the p— treaty still to come
Hindenburg and Ludendorff did not believe in democracy but they blamed the striking workers for the defeat and the politicians for signing the peace treaty still to come
Political opposition
From that time they would always be able to c— that the army had been “s— in the b—” [dolchstosse] by the S—
From that time they would always be able to claim that the army had been “stabbed in the back” [dolchstosse] by the Socialists
Political opposition
This became powerful p— for anti-d— r—-wing parties in G—.
This became powerful propaganda for anti-democratic right-wing parties in Germany.
Background
The P— Peace C— opened on the 18th January 1— – just over 2 m— after the armistice had been signed
The Paris Peace Conference opened on the 18th January 1919 – just over 2 months after the armistice had been signed
Background
The d— who attended the conference came together after 4 y— of brutal fighting which had exhausted many E— nations
The delegates who attended the conference came together after 4 years of brutal fighting which had exhausted many European nations
Background
The c— was founded on a mixture of t— and o—; some believed it was a gathering dominated by old E— powers, others believed it was a genuine o— to mend a broken world
The conference was founded on a mixture of tension and optimism; some believed it was a gathering dominated by old European powers, others believed it was a genuine opportunity to mend a broken world
location
P— was chosen as the site for the c—, although this was not helpful for n—. Paris still had sandbagged buildings because of the expected a— by G— in 1—
Paris was chosen as the site for the conference, although this was not helpful for negotiations. Paris still had sandbagged buildings because of the expected attack by Germany in 1918
location
It gave C— the advantage as he was the p— of the conference and could dominate proceedings. He spoke E— but neither Wilson nor Lloyd George spoke F—
It gave Clemenceau the advantage as he was the president of the conference and could dominate proceedings. He spoke English but neither Wilson nor Lloyd George spoke French
location
32 n— were represented but there were 58 c— and c—
32 nations were represented but there were 58 committees and commissions
Attendees
Both G— and B— Russia were excluded from n—; Germany because it was declared the key a— in the war just finished, Russia because the B— (Communists) had come to power in a r— in October 1—
Both Germany and Bolshevik Russia were excluded from negotiations; Germany because it was declared the key aggressor in the war just finished, Russia because the Bolsheviks (Communists) had come to power in a revolution in October 1917
Attendees
Most negotiations were conducted by the C— of T—: two representatives each from B—, F—, the U—, I— and J—
Most negotiations were conducted by the Council of Ten: two representatives each from Britain, France, the USA, Italy and Japan
Attendees
The most important d— were made by the C— of F—: President W— W— (USA), Prime Minister D— L— G— (GB), Prime Minister G— C— (France) Prime Minister V— O— (Italy)
The most important decisions were made by the Council of Four: President Woodrow Wilson (USA), Prime Minister David Lloyd George (GB), Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau (France) Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando (Italy)
Attendees
In reality, the major d— were made by The Big T—; W—, L— G— and C—
In reality, the major decisions were made by The Big Three; Wilson, Lloyd George and Clemenceau
Attendees
The Big Three l— had different a— and p— and difficult d— circumstances to manage
The Big Three leaders had different aims and priorities and difficult domestic circumstances to manage
Attendees
I— had been promised t— by GB, France and Russia as a condition of entering the war AGAINST G— and A— - H—, but this wasn’t fulfilled during n— and Italy left the c—
Italy had been promised territory by GB, France and Russia as a condition of entering the war AGAINST Germany and A-H, but this wasn’t fulfilled during negotiations and Italy left the conference
Attendees
J— was desperate to have a—r— clauses included in the discussions/treaties but this was o— by many representatives (including PM Hughes from Australia!). This caused Japan to r— the p— making process.
Japan was desperate to have anti-racism clauses included in the discussions/treaties but this was opposed by many representatives (including PM Hughes from Australia!). This caused Japan to resent the peace making process.
The Treaty of Versailles - Germany
The Treaty of V— (TofV) was written in just 5 w— in a hostile and aggressive a—. Most of the 4— provisions had been the focus of bitter d—
The Treaty of Versailles (TofV) was written in just 5 weeks in a hostile and aggressive atmosphere. Most of the 400 provisions had been the focus of bitter disagreement
The Treaty of Versailles - Germany
The p— conference was held at the F— Palace of V— – a glorious building that reflected the magnificence of F—, and where the French had been forced to sign a h— treaty after their loss in the F—-P— War in 1—, meant that it was a site of fierce anti-G— sentiment
The peace conference was held at the French Palace of Versailles – a glorious building that reflected the magnificence of France, and where the French had been forced to sign a humiliating treaty after their loss in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, meant that it was a site of fierce anti-German sentiment
The Treaty of Versailles - Germany
The TofV was not written in accord with President W— F— Points – on which was the basis that Germany had signed the armistice in November 1—
The TofV was not written in accord with President Wilson’s Fourteen Points – on which was the basis that Germany had signed the armistice in November 1918
The Treaty of Versailles - Germany
The Germans were given 15 d— to read through and accept the T—; they presented serious o— and demanded m—
The Germans were given 15 days to read through and accept the Treaty; they presented serious objections and demanded modifications
The Treaty of Versailles - Germany
At first Germany r— to sign, then some small m— were made and then Germany was threatened with a renewal of the f— if they didn’t sign
At first Germany refused to sign, then some small modifications were made and then Germany was threatened with a renewal of the fighting if they didn’t sign
The Treaty of Versailles - Germany
G— was f— to sign the TofV on 28th June 1—
Germany was forced to sign the TofV on 28th June 1919
The Treaty of Versailles - Germany
G— claimed it was excessively h— [H— and L— had sent the new politicians (S—) to the conference and they had to s— it]
Germany claimed it was excessively harsh [Hindenburg and Ludendorff had sent the new politicians (Socialists) to the conference and they had to sign it]
The Treaty of Versailles - Germany
For the A—, the TofV was a huge c— and no country was very h— with the outcome. BUT F— did have A—-L— returned and the League of N— was potentially a very good organisation to prevent future w—
For the Allies, the TofV was a huge compromise and no country was very happy with the outcome. BUT France did have Alsace-Lorraine returned and the League of Nations was potentially a very good organisation to prevent future wars
Treaty of Versailles – military terms
The G— Army was reduced to 1— soldiers
The German Army was reduced to 100 000 soldiers
Treaty of Versailles – military terms
The G— Army was denied the use of t— and h— artillery. It was forbidden to have an a— force or s—
The German Army was denied the use of tanks and heavy artillery. It was forbidden to have an air force or submarines
Treaty of Versailles – military terms
Strict l— were placed on the size of Germany’s b— and its naval base in the N— Sea was d—
Strict limits were placed on the size of Germany’s battleships and its naval base in the North Sea was destroyed
Treaty of Versailles – military terms
The R— was d— and was to be administered by A— military forces for 1— years
The Rhineland was demilitarised and was to be administered by Allied military forces for 15 years
Reaction by the Germans
The honour of the G— military was d—. A nation which thought it was going to n— an honourable p— was crippled and h—
The honour of the German military was destroyed. A nation which thought it was going to negotiate an honourable peace was crippled and humiliated
Treaty of Versailles – territorial terms
G— lost over 1— sq kms of territory and 7 m— people
Germany lost over 100 000 sq kms of territory and 7 million people
Treaty of Versailles – territorial terms
It had to hand back A— and L— to France and it lost small parcels of land to B—, D—, L—, P— and the new country of C—
It had to hand back Alsace and Lorraine to France and it lost small parcels of land to Belgium, Denmark, Lithuania, Poland and the new country of Czechoslovakia
Treaty of Versailles – territorial terms
The S— (its main coal mining area) was placed under League of N— control for 1— years but France was given control of the c— mines
The Saar (its main coal mining area) was placed under League of Nations control for 15 years but France was given control of the coal mines
Treaty of Versailles – territorial terms
U— with A— (the Anschluss) was forbidden. G— lost ALL of its overseas c—
Union with Austria (the Anschluss) was forbidden. Germany lost ALL of its overseas colonies
Reaction by the Germans
The loss of the c— mines made it almost impossible to pay the massive r— bill imposed by the Treaty of V—
The loss of the coal mines made it almost impossible to pay the massive reparations bill imposed by the Treaty of Versailles
Reaction by the Germans
Strong r— created by the imposition of the A—
Strong resentment created by the imposition of the Anschluss
Treaty of Versailles – economic terms
Clause 2— placed full r— for the war on G— and its allies. This then provided the justification for the massive r— bill. It took 3 y— for the amount to be determined but in 1— the allies agreed it would be 6.6 b— pounds (about $40 million)
Clause 231 placed full responsibility for the war on Germany and its allies. This then provided the justification for the massive reparations bill. It took 3 years for the amount to be determined but in 1921 the allies agreed it would be 6.6 billion pounds (about $40 million)
Treaty of Versailles – economic terms
B— and F— received German m— and i—
Belgium and France received German machinery and infrastructure
Treaty of Versailles – economic terms
F— would be given 8 m— tons of German c— and t— each year.
France would be given 8 million tons of German coal and timber each year.
Reaction by the Germans
The G— believed they had been forced to sign a d— – a dictated peace, which made them admit that they were solely r— for causing W—
The Germans believed they had been forced to sign a diktat – a dictated peace, which made them admit that they were solely responsible for causing WWI
Introduction
There were f— separate p— treaties written and finalised at the P— Peace C—. The main one the Treaty of V— was with G—
There were five separate peace treaties written and finalised at the Paris Peace Conference. The main one the Treaty of Versailles was with Germany
Introduction
The principle of s—-d— – one of Pres W— 14 P— (for peace) was one of the key o—
The principle of self-determination – one of Pres Wilson’s 14 Points (for peace) was one of the key objectives
The Treaty of Saint – Germain signed with Austria on 19th September 1919
A—‚ was required to give up t— to P—, I— and C—
Austria was required to give up territory to Poland, Italy and Czechoslovakia
The Treaty of Saint – Germain signed with Austria on 19th September 1919
The A— Army was restricted to 3— soldiers
The Austrian Army was restricted to 30 000 soldiers
The Treaty of Saint – Germain signed with Austria on 19th September 1919
A— also would pay a large amount of r— but the Austrian e— collapsed immediately after W— and it was unable to make any f— contributions
Austria also would pay a large amount of reparations but the Austrian economy collapsed immediately after WWI and it was unable to make any financial contributions
The Treaty of Neuilly signed with Bulgaria on 27th November 1919
B— had to give up t— to G—
Bulgaria had to give up territory to Greece
The Treaty of Neuilly signed with Bulgaria on 27th November 1919
The B— Army was restricted to 2— and the Border Guard was limited to 3—. It lost all its a— and n— fleet
The Bulgarian Army was restricted to 20 000 and the Border Guard was limited to 3000. It lost all its aircraft and navy fleet
The Treaty of Neuilly signed with Bulgaria on 27th November 1919
B— was required to pay 100 m— pounds in r— but this was reduced in 1— and cancelled in 1—
Bulgaria was required to pay 100 million pounds in reparations but this was reduced in 1923 and cancelled in 1932
The Treaty of Trianon signed with Hungary on 4th June 1920
H— lost almost two-thirds of its t— which amounted to about 7— of its pre-war population and much of its important e— resources; timber, coal and iron industries. The t— was lost to R— and Y—
Hungary lost almost two-thirds of its territory which amounted to about 70% of its pre-war population and much of its important economic resources; timber, coal and iron industries. The territory was lost to Romania and Yugoslavia
The Treaty of Trianon signed with Hungary on 4th June 1920
The H— Army was reduced to 3— soldiers and limitations were placed on w—
The Hungarian Army was reduced to 35 000 soldiers and limitations were placed on weaponry
The Treaty of Trianon signed with Hungary on 4th June 1920
The initial plan was for H— to pay reparations but e— instability meant it only ever handed over a s— amount
The initial plan was for Hungary to pay reparations but economic instability meant it only ever handed over a small amount
The Treaty of Sevres signed with the Ottoman Empire on 10th August 1920
The treaty formalised the break up of the old O— Empire. Territory was handed over to G—. Turkey’s empire in the M— East and North A— was transferred to F— and B— as LofN mandates. These territorial losses amounted to about two-thirds of the e—
The treaty formalised the break up of the old Ottoman Empire. Territory was handed over to Greece. Turkey’s empire in the Middle East and North Africa was transferred to France and Britain as LofN mandates. These territorial losses amounted to about two-thirds of the empire
The Treaty of Sevres signed with the Ottoman Empire on 10th August 1920
The T— Army was restricted to 5— soldiers, its navy restricted to 1— ships. The D— became an i— maritime zone
The Turkish Army was restricted to 50 000 soldiers, its navy restricted to 13 ships. The Dardanelles became an international maritime zone
The Treaty of Sevres signed with the Ottoman Empire on 10th August 1920
The a— controlled T— finances and banned economic cooperation with G—, A—, H— and B—
The allies controlled Turkey’s finances and banned economic cooperation with Germany, Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria
The Treaty of Lausanne signed with Turkey in July 1923
The Treaty of S— was annulled when N— overthrew the O— Sultan in November 1— and was replaced by the Treaty of L— – with the newly created the Republic of T—
The Treaty of Sevres was annulled when Nationalist overthrew the Ottoman Sultan in November 1922 and was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne – with the newly created the Republic of Turkey
The Treaty of Lausanne signed with Turkey in July 1923
The new treaty removed most of the r— on the size of the a— and cancelled the r— required by the Treaty of S—
The new treaty removed most of the restrictions on the size of the army and cancelled the reparations required by the Treaty of Sevres
The Treaty of Lausanne signed with Turkey in July 1923
The original intention was for the O— Empire to pay r— but these were limited because of the loss of t—. Reparations were abandoned under L—
The original intention was for the Ottoman Empire to pay reparations but these were limited because of the loss of territory. Reparations were abandoned under Lausanne
The consequences of the peace treaties
The end of old e—
Major t— changes
M— limitations
F— difficulties
The end of old empires
Major territorial changes
Military limitations
Financial difficulties
The consequences of the peace treaties
Massive r—
Establishment of the L— of N—
The hope of the rise of liberal d—
Massive resentment
Establishment of the League of Nations
The hope of the rise of liberal democracy
The end of old empires
The peace treaties contributed to the end of 4 of E— old e—. The Russian R— Empire had collapsed in October 1—
The peace treaties contributed to the end of 4 of Europe’s old empires. The Russian Romanov Empire had collapsed in October 1917
The end of old empires
The German H— Empire, the Austro-Hungarian H— Empire and O— Empire d—. In their place came many new countries: F—, E—, L—, L—, P—, C— and Y—
The German Hohenzollern Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Hapsburg Empire and Ottoman Empire disappeared. In their place came many new countries: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia
The end of old empires
The treaties benefitted the B— and F— Empires which became bigger and gave them more r—
The treaties benefitted the British and French Empires which became bigger and gave them more resources
Territorial changes
The t— had far-reaching t— consequences. The new nations had their own aspirations and created new a—
The treaties had far-reaching territorial consequences. The new nations had their own aspirations and created new alliances
Territorial changes
Although the principle of s—-d— was supposed to have been applied, the new national b— separated some e— groups which caused later problems
Although the principle of self-determination was supposed to have been applied, the new national borders separated some ethnic groups which caused later problems
Territorial changes
G— was much smaller and cut in 2 with the P— Corridor which cut off East P—
Germany was much smaller and cut in 2 with the Polish Corridor which cut off East Prussia
Territorial changes
I— and J— believed they had NOT received the t— promised even though they were on the ‘w—’ side of WWI
Italy and Japan believed they had NOT received the territory promised even though they were on the ‘winning’ side of WWI
Military limitations
These were imposed in the b— that wide scale d— would prevent to outbreak of future w—
These were imposed in the belief that wide scale disarmament would prevent to outbreak of future wars
Military limitations
While the d— nations had d— forced on them, the principle was not applied e— and conferences on the topic in the 1— and 3— got bogged down in d— and d—
While the defeated nations had disarmament forced on them, the principle was not applied equally and conferences on the topic in the 1920s and 30s got bogged down in definitions and disagreements
Financial Difficulties
Most of the t— imposed after WWI involved some form of r— on the d— nations
Most of the treaties imposed after WWI involved some form of reparations on the defeated nations
Financial Difficulties
R— were a complex issue and became the point of serious d— over the next 10 – 15 y— and they were used by p— organisations later to gain p—.
Reparations were a complex issue and became the point of serious debate over the next 10 – 15 years and they were used by political organisations later to gain popularity.
Financial Difficulties
As a result of W—, most nations were heavily i— but the US e— had grown and it became the w— nation
As a result of WWI, most nations were heavily indebted but the US economy had grown and it became the wealthiest nation
Resentment
The peace treaties fostered r— in all the d— nations and left a strong desire for them to be o—
The peace treaties fostered resentment in all the defeated nations and left a strong desire for them to be overturned
Resentment
In G—, the TofV was widely regarded as a national h— and became a major rallying point for German n— in the 1— and 3—
In Germany, the TofV was widely regarded as a national humiliation and became a major rallying point for German nationalists in the 1920s and 30s
Resentment
Resentment in I— was created when the country did not receive the promised t— by the a— which was why it had switched sides in W—
Resentment in Italy was created when the country did not receive the promised territory by the allies which was why it had switched sides in WWI
Resentment
J— was frustrated by the outcome of the P— Conference and Japanese n— resented the dominance of B—, F— and the U—
Japan was frustrated by the outcome of the Peace Conference and Japanese nationalists resented the dominance of Br, Fr and the USA
The establishment of the League of Nations - 1920
In January 1— Pres W— advocated a new set of p— to ensure world peace. They were set out in a speech to the US C— on 8th January 1— and included the creation of an o— for this specific task
In January 1918 Pres Wilson advocated a new set of principles to ensure world peace. They were set out in a speech to the US Congress on 8th January 1918 and included the creation of an organisation for this specific task
The establishment of the League of Nations - 1920
Formal discussions about the structure of the L— of N— began at the P— Peace Conference and the ideas were refined and then approved on 28th April 1—. Many compromises had been made to achieve this end – and the U— never became a m—!
Formal discussions about the structure of the League of Nations began at the Paris Peace Conference and the ideas were refined and then approved on 28th April 1919. Many compromises had been made to achieve this end – and the USA never became a member!
The League of Nations
This was the key element of the p— conference promoted by Pres. W—. It was included in the Treaty of V—, which was signed on 28th June 1—
This was the key element of the peace conference promoted by Pres. Wilson. It was included in the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on 28th June 1919
The League of Nations
The LofN officially began operations on 16th January 1— – underpinned by the high ideals of collective s— and the prevention of future w—
The LofN officially began operations on 16th January 1920 – underpinned by the high ideals of collective security and the prevention of future wars
The League of Nations
HOWEVER, G— was not admitted as a member despite repeated r—. Its membership fluctuated a lot in its 2— years of existence.
HOWEVER, Germany was not admitted as a member despite repeated requests. Its membership fluctuated a lot in its 20 years of existence.
The hope of the rise of liberal democracy
Breaking apart the old e— and establishing new n— also helped to increase the influence of liberal d— – especially in w— and c— Europe
Breaking apart the old empires and establishing new nations also helped to increase the influence of liberal democracy – especially in western and central Europe
The hope of the rise of liberal democracy
Once the treaties had been signed, E— appeared to be a stronghold of liberal d— although this would prove to be very f—, for a range of reasons, through the 1— and 3—.
Once the treaties had been signed, Europe appeared to be a stronghold of liberal democracy although this would prove to be very fragile, for a range of reasons, through the 1920s and 30s.
The conditions that enabled dictators to rise to power
The liberal d— in B—, F— and the U— were the victors in WWI – there were expectations that this would be the preferred model for g— after the w—
The liberal democracies in Britain, France and the USA were the victors in WWI – there were expectations that this would be the preferred model for governments after the war
The conditions that enabled dictators to rise to power
Instead, 1— to 1— saw the rise of a— regimes (dictatorships) throughout E— and J— at this time
Instead, 1919 to 1939 saw the rise of authoritarian regimes (dictatorships) throughout Europe and Japan at this time
Pre-war developments
A long period of e— change since the I— Revolution had resulted in p— and s— change, or, contributed to the demands for c—
A long period of economic change since the Industrial Revolution had resulted in political and social change, or, contributed to the demands for change
Pre-war developments
This m— was e— by many but regarded with f— and s— by others
This modernisation was embraced by many but regarded with fear and suspicion by others
Pre-war developments
A key feature was that more of the p— became engaged with p—, and mass c— through cheap n— allowed p— to spread their m— easily
A key feature was that more of the population became engaged with politics, and mass communication through cheap newspapers allowed politicians to spread their message easily
The main conditions that allowed dictators to emerge
N— and n—
W—
The r— of the peace t—
E— crises
The failure of the l— of N—
The end of a— rule/fragility of d—
Nations and nationalism
WWI
The resentment of the peace treaties
Economic crises
The failure of the league of Nations
The end of authoritarian rule/fragility of democracy
Nations and nationalism
As s— and t— became more popular, people looked to traditions other than the c— to form their i—
As science and technology became more popular, people looked to traditions other than the church to form their identity
Nations and nationalism
N— was a powerful idea for this and distinct e—, l— and c— groups wanted the right to form their own n— with strong national p— – governments could use this to b— people together
Nationalism was a powerful idea for this and distinct ethnic, linguistic and cultural groups wanted the right to form their own nations with strong national pride – governments could use this to bind people together
Nations and nationalism
This was an important theme of the interwar d—: I—, G— and J— promoted the rights of their n— above others and justified decisions as their n— right
This was an important theme of the interwar dictatorships: Italy, Germany and Japan promoted the rights of their nation above others and justified decisions as their national right
World War I
A highly s— event that set up the conditions that enabled the d— to rise in the 1— and 3— was W—
A highly significant event that set up the conditions that enabled the dictators to rise in the 1920s and 30s was WWI
World War I
11 m— had died, 20 m— were w—, war brutalised the soldiers who survived and they celebrated v— and glorified w—. Many didn’t adjust to c— life, especially when there was p— confusion and e— hardship
11 million had died, 20 million were wounded, war brutalised the soldiers who survived and they celebrated violence and glorified war. Many didn’t adjust to civilian life, especially when there was political confusion and economic hardship
World War I
The general p— had become used to g— control during the war and this established a clear example that s— govs were more e—
The general population had become used to government control during the war and this established a clear example that strong govs were more efficient
Resentment of the peace treaties
The peace t— that ended W— were generally u— and many p— leaders and movements quickly began to use this dissatisfaction to boost their own personal p— and p— agenda
The peace treaties that ended WWI were generally unpopular and many political leaders and movements quickly began to use this dissatisfaction to boost their own personal popularity and political agenda
Resentment of the peace treaties
In I—, G— and J—, some p— publicly criticised the t— and attacked the c— that produced them
In Italy, Germany and Japan, some politicians publicly criticised the treaties and attacked the countries that produced them
Resentment of the peace treaties
The intention of p— to revise the treaties became an important part of p— movements in their rise to p— after W—
The intention of politicians to revise the treaties became an important part of political movements in their rise to power after WWI
Economic crises
WWI disrupted world t—, indebted E— nations to the U—, and the r— imposed on G— by the TofV created an ongoing grievance that became a r— point for German n—
WWI disrupted world trade, indebted European nations to the USA, and the reparations imposed on Germany by the TofV created an ongoing grievance that became a rallying point for German nationalists
Economic crises
Major e— crises occurred during the 1— and 3— and these strongly contributed to the rise of d—
Major economic crises occurred during the 1920s and 30s and these strongly contributed to the rise of dictatorships
Economic crises
In 1—, the W— Street C— in the U— started the G— D— which caused e— hardship around the w— – H— popularity dramatically increased after this and enabled him to come to power in 1—
In 1929, the Wall Street Crash in the USA started the Great Depression which caused economic hardship around the world – Hitler’s popularity dramatically increased after this and enabled him to come to power in 1933
Failure of the League of Nations
Although it was created with o— and a strong belief in i—, the L— failed to stop the aggressive e— nature of d— regimes in the 1—
Although it was created with optimism and a strong belief in internationalism, the LofN failed to stop the aggressive expansionist nature of dictatorial regimes in the 1930s
Failure of the League of Nations
The L— could not defend the flawed p— settlements or act in any effective way against the aggressive n— of J—, I— and G— and this allowed the d— to consolidate their p— and p— at home
The LofN could not defend the flawed peace settlements or act in any effective way against the aggressive nationalism of Japan, Italy and Germany and this allowed the dictators to consolidate their power and popularity at home
The end of autocratic rule/fragility of democracy
A— rulers in E— through the 1— and early 2— centuries had kept tight c— over their subject p— and brutally crushed tensions in s—. When the old e— of E— collapsed these tensions re-emerged and were left u—
Autocratic rulers in Europe through the 19th and early 20th centuries had kept tight control over their subject populations and brutally crushed tensions in society. When the old empires of Europe collapsed these tensions re-emerged and were left unchecked
The end of autocratic rule/fragility of democracy
The new liberal d— did not have firm r— and the processes of d— were poorly d—. Often, no p— ever gained a m— and c— governments were u—
The new liberal democracies did not have firm roots and the processes of democracy were poorly developed. Often, no party ever gained a majority and coalition governments were unstable
Conclusion
When a strong, commanding l— of a united p— emerged, promising s— solutions to complex p—, using peoples’ f— and i—, they immediately had an i—, they gained widespread p— and they rose to p—.
When a strong, commanding leader of a united party emerged, promising simple solutions to complex problems, using peoples’ fears and insecurities, they immediately had an impact, they gained widespread popularity and they rose to power.
The dictator and background
Name: B— M—
Background: originally a S— (leftwing), fought for I— in W—, was w—
Name: Benito Mussolini
Background: originally a Socialist (leftwing), fought for Italy in WWI, was wounded
The dictator and background
I— after W—: a chaotic p— situation and liberal d— parties couldn’t form a stable g—, s— problems; u—, i—, division of c— (upper and lower), declining l— standards for w— and m— class
Italy after WWI: a chaotic political situation and liberal democratic parties couldn’t form a stable government, social problems; unemployment, inflation, division of classes (upper and lower), declining living standards for working and middle class
The dictator and background
M— response: adopted r— wing views, formed the F— Party in 1— which combined all r— wing groups, developed a m— of ex-servicemen – the B— – main job to i— F— opponents.
Mussolini’s response: adopted right wing views, formed the Fascist Party in 1919 which combined all right wing groups, developed a militia of ex-servicemen – the Blackshirts – main job to intimidate Fascist opponents.
The dictator and background
M— personal qualities: gifted o—, had great p— and used this to p— himself as a m— of v— and a—, s— and h— and d—
Mussolini’s personal qualities: gifted orator, had great presence and used this to project himself as a man of vision and action, strong and healthy and decisive
The dictator and background
He developed a C— of P— which he used to great effect; loved and used m— attention to create an i— of someone who was m—, hard w— and able to take I— to greatness.
He developed a Cult of Personality which he used to great effect; loved and used media attention to create an image of someone who was multi-talented, hard working and able to take Italy to greatness.
The dictator and background
He drew a lot on the i— of the Ancient R— Empire – symbols like the f— (bundles of r— Roman b used to carry to indicate their a—), terms like l—, c—
He drew a lot on the images/ideas of the Ancient Roman Empire – symbols like the fasces (bundles of rods Roman b used to carry to indicate their authority), terms like legions, centurions
The dictator and background
His Title: I— D— del F— e F— dell’I— [The l— and f— of the e—]
His Title: Il Duce del Fascismo e Fondatore dell’Impero [The leader and founder of the empire]
Rise to Prominence
In 1— M— was appointed P— M— by K— V— E— III and supported by the a—, big b— and conservative C— because he was anti-c—
In 1922 Mussolini was appointed Prime Minister by King Victor Emmanuel III and supported by the army, big business and conservative Catholics because he was anti-communist
Rise to Prominence
BUT, had to share p— with other p— (only 4 of 14 m— were F—). The Party was d— and had many d—. M— gradually extended his personal p— and power over the p— system
BUT, had to share power with other parties (only 4 of 14 ministers were Fascists). The Party was disorganised and had many disagreements. Mussolini gradually extended his personal power and power over the political system
Rise to Prominence
He consolidated his p— after 1— [the M— Affair] when he took responsibility for a m— of a S— committed by F—, this presented him as r—, o— and s— – his reputation quickly r—
He consolidated his power after 1924 [the Matteoti Affair] when he took responsibility for a murder of a Socialist committed by Fascists, this presented him as responsible, organised and strong – his reputation quickly recovered
Idealogy
The belief in a s— and p— s— under one p— party (t—) where the l— was d— and a—
The belief in a strong and powerful state under one political party (totalitarianism) where the leader was decisive and active
Idealogy
The needs of the i— citizen were NOT i— – only the needs of the s— counted, individual l— and d— principles were NOT r—
The needs of the individual citizen were NOT important – only the needs of the state counted, individual liberty and democratic principles were NOT respected
Idealogy
F— was anti – s— and c—
Fascism was anti – socialism and communism
Idealogy
It placed GREAT e— on N— – I— greatness would be restored and this would include t— expansion (but did not include r— attitudes to start with). It used I— resentment about the 1— P— Settlement to build this.
It placed GREAT emphasis on NATIONALISM – Italian greatness would be restored and this would include territorial expansion (but did not include racial attitudes to start with). It used Italian resentment about the 1919 Peace Settlement to build this.
The economy
M— attempted to reshape the Italian e— but was never in complete c— of it. [e.g. the F— did NOT take over i— and a—] There was NO overall e— plan
Mussolini attempted to reshape the Italian economy but was never in complete control of it. [e.g. the Fascists did NOT take over industry and agriculture] There was NO overall economic plan
The economy
The F— tried to organised the e— as a third alternative between c— and c—. It proposed the ‘c— state’ where e— and e— worked together under new r—
The Fascists tried to organised the economy as a third alternative between communism and capitalism. It proposed the ‘corporate state’ where employees and employers worked together under new rules
The economy
M— initiated p— projects to fit with his message of national r—; e— of Ancient R— sites (Pompeii), draining s— for f— land, constructing a grand a— for p— – these employed 1— of people
Mussolini initiated prestige projects to fit with his message of national rebirth; excavation of Ancient Roman sites (Pompeii), draining swamps for farming land, constructing a grand avenue for parades – these employed 1000s of people
CONTROL: propaganda, censorship and terror
M— established a P— D— in 1—; it used p—, p—, school t—, m—, r— programmes and public e—
Mussolini established a Propaganda Department in 1934; it used posters, photographs, school textbooks, magazines, radio programmes and public events
CONTROL: propaganda, censorship and terror
It emphasised national u— and s— as well as the benefits of F— rule and values (the f—)
It emphasised national unity and strength as well as the benefits of Fascist rule and values (the family)
CONTROL: propaganda, censorship and terror
BUT it was limited by I— poor m— network. Very few Italian c— had a r—. From 1— the Fascist R— Bari b— into North A— and the M— East
BUT it was limited by Italy’s poor media network. Very few Italian citizens had a radio. From 1932 the Fascist Radio Bari broadcast into North Africa and the Middle East
CONTROL: propaganda, censorship and terror
There was less c— of m— and a— in I— compared to other d—
I— travellers still visited Italy in the 1— and 3—
There was less censorship of media and artists in Italy compared to other dictatorships
International travellers still visited Italy in the 1920s and 30s
CONTROL: propaganda, censorship and terror
M— had a background in j— so he used it to promote h— by providing n— with a— and daily b—
Mussolini had a background in journalism so he used it to promote himself by providing newspapers with articles and daily briefings
CONTROL: propaganda, censorship and terror
As time went on c— tightened and all j— had to r— with the F— and were m—
As time went on censorship tightened and all journalists had to register with the Fascists and were monitored
CONTROL: propaganda, censorship and terror
M— used t— to eliminate o— (USE the B—)
BUT his r— was less v— than other d—
Mussolini used terror to eliminate opposition (USE the Blackshirts)
BUT his rule was less violent than other dictatorships
CONTROL: propaganda, censorship and terror
He set up a S— P— force in 1— called O— – it was very active in I— but it didn’t carry out mass a— or e— (for the whole of his rule estimates suggest only 5— people were sentenced for political c—, no c— camps
He set up a Secret Police force in 1926 called OVRA – it was very active in Italy but it didn’t carry out mass arrests or executions (for the whole of his rule estimates suggest only 5000 people were sentenced for political crimes, no concentration camps
CONTROL: propaganda, censorship and terror
M— was not anti – S— (Jewish) to start with but from 1— he introduced r— laws to restrict the activities of Italian J— (many left the country) The laws were not p— with I—
Mussolini was not anti – Semitic (Jewish) to start with but from 1938 he introduced racial laws to restrict the activities of Italian Jews (many left the country) The laws were not popular with Italians
Society and Culture
Although M— claimed he wanted to create a ‘new F— man’ in many areas his p— were quite c—. W— were expected to have lots of b—.
Although Mussolini claimed he wanted to create a ‘new Fascist man’ in many areas his policies were quite conservative. Women were expected to have lots of babies.
Society and Culture
He created the O— in 1— to organise and promote a range of s— and c— activities to involve the entire p— and unite the p—; activities related to s—, w—, r— and l— services were introduced – about 2— million people participated. [Italy won the s— W— C— in 1— and 1—!]
He created the OND in 1925 to organise and promote a range of social and cultural activities to involve the entire population and unite the people; activities related to sport, work, recreation and library services were introduced – about 20 million people participated. [Italy won the soccer World Cup in 1934 and 1938!]
Foreign Policy
Under M— , I— pursued an e— foreign policy which was a l— aim of the F— and an expression of the i—
Under Mussolini , Italy pursued an expansionist foreign policy which was a longstanding aim of the Fascists and an expression of the ideology
Foreign Policy
M— wanted to ‘r—’ the p— and p— of I— and build an e— surrounding the M— Sea. His focus was on North A—, which he considered to be part of Italy’s S— V— (living space)
Mussolini wanted to ‘restore’ the power and prestige of Italy and build an empire surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. His focus was on North Africa, which he considered to be part of Italy’s Spazio Vitale (living space)
Foreign Policy
Again this fed into the r— he and other I— felt about not receiving the promised t— after W— from the p—
Again this fed into the resentment he and other Italians felt about not receiving the promised territory after WWI from the peacemakers
Foreign Policy
E— was also used to revive F— which had stagnated in the mid 3—
Expansion was also used to revive Fascism which had stagnated in the mid 30s
Foreign Policy
The i— of E—(A—) in O— 1—
The invasion of Ethiopia(Abyssinia) in October 1935
Foreign Policy
Involvement in the S— C— War (on r—-wing n—, F— side) 1— – 1-
Involvement in the Spanish Civil War (on right-wing nationalist, Franco’s side) 1936 – 1939
Foreign Policy
I— withdrawed from the L— of N— in 1—
Growing f— with Nazi G— in the 1—; M— 1— Pact of S—, S— 1— – with G— and J— – the T— Pact
Italy withdrawed from the League of Nations in 1937
Growing friendship with Nazi Germany in the 1930s; May 1939 Pact of Steel, September 1940 – with Germany and Japan – the Tripartite Pact
Foreign Policy
I— joined G— in W— in J— 1—
Italy joined Germany in WW2 in June 1940
The question of a ‘dictatorship’ in Japan
A difficulty in comparing what happened in I—, R— and J— in the inter-war period is that some h— question whether the J— regime of the 1— should be called a d—.
A difficulty in comparing what happened in Italy, Russia and Japan in the inter-war period is that some historians question whether the Japanese regime of the 1930s should be called a dictatorship.
The question of a ‘dictatorship’ in Japan
In J— there was NO single l— in p— for an extended p— and rather than a powerful p— party, J— was dominated by the m—.
In Japan there was NO single leader in power for an extended period and rather than a powerful political party, Japan was dominated by the military.
The question of a ‘dictatorship’ in Japan
However, it can be argued that by the 1—, J— had become a m— dictatorship as its a— and n— leaders were very p— and who influenced the e—.
However, it can be argued that by the 1930s, Japan had become a military dictatorship as its army and navy leaders were very powerful and who influenced the emperor.
2 main leaders
Emperor H—: reigned from 1— to 1—. A m— whose a— and special position in J— society was built on well-established t—. But he was not a c— dominating person like I— D— (or H—)
Emperor Hirohito: reigned from 1926 to 1989. A monarch whose authority and special position in Japanese society was built on well-established tradition. But he was not a crowd dominating person like Il Duce (or Hitler)
2 main leaders
General T—: came to represent Japanese m— even though he was only P— Minister from late 1— until mid 1—. Throughout this time, T— was always responsible to the E— and there were other powerful m— commanders at the time.
General Tojo: came to represent Japanese militarism even though he was only Prime Minister from late 1941 until mid 1944. Throughout this time, Tojo was always responsible to the Emperor and there were other powerful military commanders at the time.
Background
Japanese p— evolved rather than underwent a r— and the e— reign continued uninterrupted
After W— J— experienced a range of d—/issues
Japanese politics evolved rather than underwent a revolution and the emperor’s reign continued uninterrupted
After WWI Japan experienced a range of difficulties/issues
Background
The price of r— rose rapidly and there were r— – these were b— crushed
The price of rice rose rapidly and there were riots – these were brutally crushed
Background
J— leaders were very u— about their t— at the P—, especially as they had fought on the A— side
Japanese leaders were very unhappy about their treatment at the PPC, especially as they had fought on the Allies side
Political instability
J— in the 1— was NOT a full d—. It had a p— (the Diet) but voting was r— and the P— was responsible to the e— not the D—
Japan in the 1920s was NOT a full democracy. It had a parliament (the Diet) but voting was restricted and the PM was responsible to the emperor not the Diet
Political instability
There was s— support for greater d— by some who wanted J— to be i— in outlook and t— and co-operate with other c—
There was strong support for greater democracy by some who wanted Japan to be internationalist in outlook and trade and co-operate with other countries
Political instability
But there were also strong n— who favoured a— gov, t— Japanese v—, high m— budgets and who were anti m— and wanted c—/traditional values to p—.
But there were also strong nationalists who favoured authoritarian gov, traditional Japanese values, high military budgets and who were anti modernism and wanted conservative/traditional values to prevail.
Political instability
C— was briefly p— (Japanese C— Party 1— – 1—). But the government brought in a P— P— Law in 1— which restricted public d— of political i—
Communism was briefly popular (Japanese Communist Party 1922 – 1932). But the government brought in a Peace Preservation Law in 1925 which restricted public discussion of political issues
Political instability
J— was again h— at the W— N— Conference in 1—-2 when it had to accept strict l— on the size of its n— fleet
Japan was again humiliated at the Washington Naval Conference in 1921-22 when it had to accept strict limitations on the size of its naval fleet
The change to authoritarianism
From 1—, J— turned to more e— measures to solve its p—
From 1932, Japan turned to more extremist measures to solve its problems
The change to authoritarianism
The impact of the G— D— 1— – 1— was very severe in J—. U— rose massively, there was terrible p— in r— areas and a s— of r— limited the extent to which the g— could expand i—
The impact of the Great Depression 1929 – 1933 was very severe in Japan. Unemployment rose massively, there was terrible poverty in rural areas and a shortage of resources limited the extent to which the gov could expand industry
The change to authoritarianism
PM T— was a— by a group of young n— officers in 1—; this brought an end to p— government. The influence of the m— increased and 5 of the next 10 P— were from the m— – they favoured r— wing n— and aggressive f— policy
PM Tsuyoshi was assassinated by a group of young naval officers in 1932; this brought an end to party government. The influence of the military increased and 5 of the next 10 PMs were from the military – they favoured right wing nationalism and aggressive foreign policy
Ideology
Rather than promote a new i—, the Japanese m— appealed to t— values. They rejected d— and i— and believed in the unquestioned p— of the e— as the u— force in the c—
Rather than promote a new ideology, the Japanese militarists appealed to traditional values. They rejected democracy and internationalism and believed in the unquestioned power of the emperor as the unifying force in the country
Ideology
The S— and B— traditions reinforced this and was continued by the privileged m— leaders
The Samurai and Bushido traditions reinforced this and was continued by the privileged military leaders
Ideology
A prominent i— of the time I— called for the break up of all p— parties, rule by the e— and assertive n—
A prominent intellectual of the time Ikki called for the break up of all political parties, rule by the emperor and assertive nationalism
Ideology
The m— believed this gave the J— racial s—
The military believed this gave the Japanese racial superiority
The economy
J— military d— came with no p— for a radical t— of the e—
Japan’s military dictatorship came with no plans for a radical transformation of the economy
The economy
After W— Japan’s e— was reasonably s—. BUT the G— D— affected it vey badly. The e— was dependent on i—: aluminium, c—, wool, i— and steel. AND e— of textiles and s—. After 1—, with t— restrictions, the e— collapsed.
After WWI Japan’s economy was reasonably strong. BUT the Great Depression affected it vey badly. The economy was dependent on imports: aluminium, cotton, wool, iron and steel. AND exports of textiles and silk. After 1929, with trade restrictions, the economy collapsed.
The economy
From the mid 1— there was more control over the e— as it moved towards larger-scale w— – 7—% of gov s— allocated to the m—
From the mid 1930s there was more control over the economy as it moved towards larger-scale war – 75% of gov spending allocated to the military
Control: propaganda, censorship, terror
P—: this was used e— to u— the p— behind the war effort. It evolved over time as J— faced increasing c—
Propaganda: this was used extensively to unify the population behind the war effort. It evolved over time as Japan faced increasing challenges
Control: propaganda, censorship, terror
It covered themes of m— achievements and the benefits of J— c— and p— system
It covered themes of military achievements and the benefits of Japanese culture and political system
Control: propaganda, censorship, terror
C—: this was increased in the 1—. In 1— a C— Information B— was established to c— all n— and produce p—
Censorship: this was increased in the 1930s. In 1940 a Cabinet Information Bureau was established to censor all news and produce propaganda
Control: propaganda, censorship, terror
There was little outright o— from the J— people. The 1— P— P— Law gave the gov greater c— over critics – some were i— for the whole w—
There was little outright opposition from the Japanese people. The 1941 Peace Preservation Law gave the gov greater control over critics – some were imprisoned for the whole war
Control: propaganda, censorship, terror
T—: A— rule was expanded after the full-scale i— of C— in 1—
Terror: Authoritarian rule was expanded after the full-scale invasion of China in 1937
Control: propaganda, censorship, terror
The T— – Special H— Police monitored p— thought and maintained s— stability
The Tokko – Special Higher Police monitored political thought and maintained social stability
Control: propaganda, censorship, terror
The K— – M— Police C— was a secret p— unit of the army – it was b— but more active in occupied t— rather than in J—
The Kempeitai – Military Police Corps was a secret police unit of the army – it was brutal but more active in occupied territories rather than in Japan
Control: propaganda, censorship, terror
L— wing radical were main t— during the 1—. There were no c— camps or mass k—
Left wing radical were main targets during the 1930s. There were no concentration camps or mass killings
Society and Culture
There was no major s— change/cultural r— during the time of the m— dictatorship
There was no major social change/cultural revolution during the time of the military dictatorship
Society and Culture
E— were concentrated in promoting n— v— and support for the e—
Efforts were concentrated in promoting nationalist values and support for the emperor
Society and Culture
L— was very regimented and c—. The conservative i— were pushed through the e— system. The J— people were largely c—.
Life was very regimented and controlled. The conservative ideas were pushed through the education system. The Japanese people were largely compliant.
Foreign Policy
In the 1— Japan abandoned d— and international co-operation and a— an increasingly aggressive/e— foreign policy in the A—-Pacific region.
In the 1930s Japan abandoned diplomacy and international co-operation and adopted an increasingly aggressive/expansionist foreign policy in the Asia-Pacific region.
Foreign Policy
1— – the Japanese K— Army invaded M—
It w— from the L— in 1—
In 1— it invaded C–
1931 – the Japanese Kwantung Army invaded Manchuria
It withdrew from the League in 1933
In 1937 it invaded China
Foreign Policy
In S— 1— it signed the T— Pact with G— and I—
In September 1940 it signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy
Foreign Policy
Its r— with the U— deteriorated 1— – 1— which led to the b— of P— Harbor in D— 1—
Its relations with the USA deteriorated 1939 – 1940 which led to the bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941
The establishment of the Weimar Republic – democracy in Germany
D— was established in G— amid the chaos and bitterness of d— at the end of W—
Democracy was established in Germany amid the chaos and bitterness of defeat at the end of WWI
The establishment of the Weimar Republic – democracy in Germany
Many in G— including; l— and supporters of the S— D— P— (SPD – Socialists – the largest party in the R—) welcomed the start of full d—
Many in Germany including; liberals and supporters of the Social Democratic Party (SPD – Socialists – the largest party in the Reichstag) welcomed the start of full democracy
The establishment of the Weimar Republic – democracy in Germany
On the r— wing of politics this included c— who had little faith in d— because it had been imposed by the victorious a— and because it was led by p— from the w— class – the S— D—
On the right wing of politics this included conservatives who had little faith in democracy because it had been imposed by the victorious allies and because it was led by politicians from the working class – the Social Democrats
The establishment of the Weimar Republic – democracy in Germany
There was also opposition to the d r— from the political l— wing; e— groups like the I— S— and S—. They had wanted a full-scale socialist r—
There was also opposition to the democratic republic from the political left wing; extremist groups like the Independent Socialists and Spartacists (communists). They had wanted a full-scale socialist revolution (like the Bolshevik Rev. in Russia)
The establishment of the Weimar Republic – democracy in Germany
They caused widespread d—, difficulty and p— instability for the new W— R— from its earliest months
They caused widespread disruption, difficulty and political instability for the new Weimar Republic from its earliest months
Early opposition to Weimar
O— 1— – the sailors of the Kiel N— Base mutinied, led by the Independent S— and revolutionary activity occurred in other parts of G— (in M— a short-lived s— republic was e— but quickly c—)
October 1918 – the sailors of the Kiel Naval Base mutinied, led by the Independent Socialists and revolutionary activity occurred in other parts of Germany (in Munich a short-lived socialist republic was established but quickly crushed)
Early opposition to Weimar
N— 1— – Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled to The N—. The Social Democrat, S— immediately announced the formation of the new German R—, with E— as the head of a provisional g— until elections for a National A— could be organised.
November 1918 – Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and fled to The Netherlands. The Social Democrat, Scheidmann immediately announced the formation of the new German Republic, with Ebert as the head of a provisional government until elections for a National Assembly could be organised.
Early opposition to Weimar
E— gained the support of the a— leader G—, to crush further l— wing revolutionary activity. The a— was dominated by an o— corps made up of c— and a— who had no sympathy for the r— and no interest in d—!
Ebert gained the support of the army leader Groener, to crush further left wing revolutionary activity. The army was dominated by an officer corps made up of conservatives and aristocrats who had no sympathy for the republic and no interest in democracy!
Early opposition to Weimar
The E—-G— Pact gave the gov some s— – however, in the l— term, the power of the a— would undermine d—
The Ebert-Groener Pact gave the gov some security – however, in the long term, the power of the army would undermine democracy
Early opposition to Weimar
A s— was also created between 2 l— wing groups; the S— (SPD) and the German C— Party (KPD) who would never c—
A split was also created between 2 left wing groups; the Socialists (SPD) and the German Communist Party (KPD) who would never cooperate
Early opposition to Weimar
J— 1— a C— uprising was brutally crushed by regular a— units and the F— – these were r— wing para-military groups largely made up of German Army veterans who had not settled into civilian life after W—
January 1919 a Communist uprising was brutally crushed by regular army units and the Freikorps – these were right wing para-military groups largely made up of German Army veterans who had not settled into civilian life after WWI
Early opposition to Weimar
But, by mid J— 1—, a National A— had been elected and met in W— – away from the chaos of B—; S— became Chancellor and Ebert President of the Weimar Republic
But, by mid January 1919, a National Assembly had been elected and met in Weimar – away from the chaos of Berlin; Schiedmann became Chancellor and Ebert President of the Weimar Republic
Early opposition to Weimar
In A— 1— a new c— had been written
In August 1919 a new constitution had been written
The Weimar Constitution - strengths
The new republic’s 1— c— was extremely d—; elections every 4 years for the R—, voting rights for all adult m— and w—, the p— would be elected by the whole population every 7 years, the c— was appointed from the R— and they would select their m— from the R—
The new republic’s 1919 constitution was extremely democratic; elections every 4 years for the Reichstag, voting rights for all adult men and women, the president would be elected by the whole population every 7 years, the chancellor was appointed from the Reichstag and they would select their ministers from the Reichstag
The Weimar Constitution - weaknesses
R— members would be e— on the basis of proportional r— – this meant that a c— was elected for every 6— votes they received
Reichstag members would be elected on the basis of proportional representation – this meant that a candidate was elected for every 60 000 votes they received
The Weimar Constitution - strengths
With so many different p— represented in the R—, it was difficult for any o— party to gain a m— and g— had to be formed from a c— of a number of parties – decision making was impossible
With so many different parties represented in the Reichstag, it was difficult for any one party to gain a majority and governments had to be formed from a coalition of a number of parties – decision making was impossible
Specific Issues with the Constitution
Article 2— gave the p— the power to appoint/dismiss the c—, close the R— and call new e—
Article 25 gave the president the power to appoint/dismiss the chancellor, close the Reichstag and call new elections
Specific Issues with the Constitution
Article 4— – was very c—! It gave the p— the power to ‘rule by d—’ in times of national e— and suspended the c—
Article 48 – was very controversial! It gave the president the power to ‘rule by decree’ in times of national emergency and suspended the constitution
Treaty of Versailles – effect on the Weimar Republic
The G— A— commanders (H— and L—) were able to avoid responsibility for the T— by spreading the d— or ‘stab in the back’ which blamed the harsh t— on the civilian p— who had signed it – blame for defeat and humiliation was inherited by the new d—
The German Army commanders (Hindenburg and Ludendorff) were able to avoid responsibility for the TofV by spreading the dolchstosslegende or ‘stab in the back’ which blamed the harsh terms on the civilian politicians who had signed it – blame for defeat and humiliation was inherited by the new democracy
Treaty of Versailles – effect on the Weimar Republic
The new republic’s p— were sometimes called the ‘N— criminals’ by the a— and c—.
The new republic’s politicians were sometimes called the ‘November criminals’ by the army and conservatives.
1920 – 1923; Political and economic crises
In the early 1—, the new d— republic struggled to establish itself as it faced violent o— from both extreme l— and r— wing organisations
In the early 1920s, the new democratic republic struggled to establish itself as it faced violent opposition from both extreme left and right wing organisations
1920 – 1923; Political and economic crises
In M— 1— the K— P— was an attempted r—-wing takeover of the gov by the F— – led by W— K— – the army would not fire on them and the gov was only saved by B— workers calling a general s—
In March 1920 the Kapp Putsch was an attempted right-wing takeover of the gov by the Freikorps – led by Wolfgang Kapp – the army would not fire on them and the gov was only saved by Berlin workers calling a general strike
1920 – 1923; Political and economic crises
From M— to M— 1— there was almost c— war in the R— with a c— (left wing) uprising of 5— workers crushed by a combination of F— and the German A—
From March to May 1920 there was almost civil war in the Ruhr with a communist (left wing) uprising of 50 000 workers crushed by a combination of Freikorps and the German Army
1920 – 1923; Political and economic crises
In the 1— there were 3— political a— including R— L—, the leader of the S— – further evidence of the political instability and violence faced by the d—
In the 1920s there were 350 political assassinations including Rosa Luxemburg, the leader of the Spartacists – further evidence of the political instability and violence faced by the democracy
1920 – 1923; Political and economic crises
In J— 1— F— and B— troops occupied the R— to enforce reparation payments because G— had fallen behind in the delivery of c— and t—
In January 1923 French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr to enforce reparation payments because Germany had fallen behind in the delivery of coal and timber
Economic disaster - hyperinflation
The German g— responded with a campaign of passive r— – a refusal by G w— to cooperate – this caused an e— crisis
The German gov responded with a campaign of passive resistance – a refusal by G workers to cooperate – this caused an economic crisis
Economic disaster - hyperinflation
The g— printed huge amounts of m— which caused i— to become h— – the value of G c— was completely d—
The gov printed huge amounts of money which caused inflation to become hyperinflation – the value of G currency was completely destroyed
Inflation and hyperinflation: German marks needed to buy $1 US
1914 - —
1919 - 4—
1922 - 7—
1923 (Jan) - 17—
1923 (Sept) - 25—
1914 - ** 4**
1919 - ** 47**
1922 - ** 7,000**
1923 (Jan) - ** 17,000**
1923 (Sept) - 25,260,000,000
Inflation and hyperinflation: German marks needed to buy $1 US
S— 1— – passive resistance was abandoned and h— was brought under c— – but great d— had been done
September 1923 – passive resistance was abandoned and hyperinflation was brought under control – but great damage had been done
Inflation and hyperinflation: German marks needed to buy $1 US
The s— and s— of the m— class and r— (older conservative) Germans were wiped out and the f— and u— of the times was forever linked to the Weimar d— and disastrous e— mismanagement
The savings and security of the middle class and retired (older conservative) Germans were wiped out and the fear and uncertainty of the times was forever linked to the Weimar democracy and disastrous economic mismanagement
Inflation and hyperinflation: German marks needed to buy $1 US
N— 1— – another p— crisis occurred when A— H— attempted his Beer Hall P— in M— – it failed but H— only received a very light s— from the conservative j— who was sympathetic
November 1923 – another political crisis occurred when Adolf Hitler attempted his Beer Hall Putsch in Munich – it failed but Hitler only received a very light sentence from the conservative judge who was sympathetic
1924 – 1928: Stability for Weimar
This period is sometimes referred to as the ‘G— Years’ of the r—; the e— improved, there was a degree of s— and it seemed like d— might succeed
This period is sometimes referred to as the ‘Golden Years’ of the republic; the economy improved, there was a degree of stability and it seemed like democracy might succeed
1924 – 1928: Stability for Weimar
G— S— introduced a new currency – the R—, which ended h— and restored f— stability
Gustav Stresemann introduced a new currency – the Rentenmark, which ended hyperinflation and restored financial stability
1924 – 1928: Stability for Weimar
S was only c for a few m— but continued as F— Minister from 1— to 1— – he worked to overturn the TofV, improved relations with B— + F—, G— joined the LofN in 1—
Stresemann was only chancellor for a few months but continued as Foreign Minister from 1923 to 1929 – he worked to overturn the TofV, improved relations with Br + Fr, Germany joined the LofN in 1926
1924 – 1928: Stability for Weimar
He negotiated the D— Plan in 1— which reduced Germany’s r— payments which enabled the W— Gov to get loans from the U— to support the e—
He negotiated the Dawes Plan in 1924 which reduced Germany’s reparation payments which enabled the Weimar Gov to get loans from the USA to support the economy
1924 – 1928: Stability for Weimar
The W— Gov gained popularity by introducing improvements in s— welfare, p— housing, h— services and l— were passed to limit working hours and set up u— insurance
The Weimar Gov gained popularity by introducing improvements in social welfare, public housing, health services and laws were passed to limit working hours and set up unemployment insurance
1924 – 1928: Stability for Weimar
C— flourished and the younger, u— population embraced m— while the older c— hated it and blamed d— for decadence and erosion of s—
Culture flourished and the younger, urban population embraced modernism while the older conservatives hated it and blamed democracy for decadence and erosion of standards
Democracy still fragile
In 1—, H— was elected P— – which indicated there were many people still loyal to the old G— Empire. The W— Republic’s head of state – with great power under the c—, was NOT committed to d—
In 1925, Hindenburg was elected President – which indicated there were many people still loyal to the old German Empire. The Weimar Republic’s head of state – with great power under the constitution, was NOT committed to democracy
Democracy still fragile
U— remained at 1—. It dropped in 1— but was on the rise again in 1—
Unemployment remained at 10%. It dropped in 1927 but was on the rise again in 1929
Democracy still fragile
From 1—, prices for a— produce dropped, creating hardship for f— and r— workers
From 1927, prices for agricultural produce dropped, creating hardship for farmers and rural workers
Democracy still fragile
Huge loans from the U— greatly helped G— invest in i— projects but made the German e— very vulnerable to any downturn in the U— economy
Huge loans from the USA greatly helped Germany invest in infrastructure projects but made the German economy very vulnerable to any downturn in the US economy
Democracy still fragile
Between 1— and 1— there were 6 different g—, providing evidence for the difficulty of forming workable c—
Between 1924 and 1928 there were 6 different governments, providing evidence for the difficulty of forming workable coalitions
Democracy still fragile
For c—, including those close to H—, this highlighted the weakness of d—. They wanted a return to a— gov.
For conservatives, including those close to Hindenburg, this highlighted the weakness of democracy. They wanted a return to authoritarian gov.
1929 – The Great Depression
The Great D— affected all industrial e— but brought total e— chaos and severe hardship to G— once again
The Great Depression affected all industrial economies but brought total economic chaos and severe hardship to Germany once again
1929 – The Great Depression
O— 1—, the U— Stock Market collapsed – the U— gov immediately called in its loans to G— – which they couldn’t pay. I— stopped and world t— ended
October 1929, the US Stock Market collapsed – the US gov immediately called in its loans to Germany – which they couldn’t pay. Investment stopped and world trade ended
1929 – The Great Depression
Between 1— and 1—, the G— unemployment rate rose from 2— million to — million (unofficial peak probably — million) – about 1— of the workforce – G— productivity halved
Between 1929 and 1932, the German unemployment rate rose from 2.5 million to 6 million (unofficial peak probably 8 million) – about 1/3 of the workforce – German productivity halved
1929 – The Great Depression
The circumstances of the D— combined with u—, h—, p—, hatred of V— significantly undermined d—
The circumstances of the Depression combined with unemployment, hunger, panic, hatred of Versailles significantly undermined democracy
1929 – The Great Depression
AJP T— comment ‘the D— put the wind in H— sails’ conveys how the N— rose to power by 1— [Taylor is an historian]
AJP Taylor’s comment ‘the Depression put the wind in Hitler’s sails’ conveys how the Nazis rose to power by 1933 [Taylor is an historian]
Establishment of the nazi party
The N— Party was established during the p— instability of the early W— Republic
The Nazi Party was established during the political instability of the early Weimar Republic
Establishment of the nazi party
To begin with it was on the fringe of r—-wing politics in the southern state of B— but in 1— it became a national p— party
To begin with it was on the fringe of right-wing politics in the southern state of Bavaria but in 1923 it became a national political party
Establishment of the nazi party
H— had served in W— and after the war, back in M—, he became interested in the German W—’ Party [DAP] founded by Anton D—
Hitler had served in WWI and after the war, back in Munich, he became interested in the German Workers’ Party [DAP] founded by Anton Drexler
Establishment of the nazi party
H— added value to the DAP because his good o— skills drew a— and fee-paying m— to the p—
Hitler added value to the DAP because his good oratory skills drew audiences and fee-paying members to the party
Establishment of the nazi party
In 1—, the party changed its name to the National S— German W—’ Party and a 2— point programme was produced – it outlined the m— beliefs/i— of the Party
In 1920, the party changed its name to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party and a 25 point programme was produced – it outlined the major beliefs/ideology of the Party
Establishment of the nazi party
H— speaking topics were very p—; hatred for T—, anti-d—, German n—, anti-M— and anti-S—
Hitler’s speaking topics were very popular; hatred for TofV, anti-democracy, German nationalism, anti-Marxist and anti-Semitic
Establishment of the nazi party
The N– Party became more prominent when it purchased its own n–, the V– B– – this spread its message/p–
The Nazi Party became more prominent when it purchased its own newspaper, the Volkischer Beobachter – this spread its message/propaganda
Establishment of the nazi party
In October 1—, H— created the S— (SA) to control crowds at p— meetings and to assault p— opponents and disrupt their m—
In October 1921, Hitler created the Sturmabteilung (SA) to control crowds at party meetings and to assault political opponents and disrupt their meetings
Establishment of the nazi party
H— continued to build the party through the next few years, it adopted i— like the s—, the b— uniform and the particular s—. Many key figures joined in this period; Ernst R—, Hermann G—, Rudolf H— and Alfred R—
Hitler continued to build the party through the next few years, it adopted iconography like the swastika, the brown uniform and the particular salute. Many key figures joined in this period; Ernst Rohm, Hermann Goring, Rudolf Hess and Alfred Rosenburg
Establishment of the nazi party
By N— 1—, H— felt confident enough to stage his ‘B— Hall P—
By Nov 1923, Hitler felt confident enough to stage his ‘Beer Hall Putsch
Establishment of the nazi party
H— and the S— stormed a beer hall in B— with the hope of convincing the l— gathered there to join him on a march to take over B— and overthrow the ‘N— Criminals’. At first, they refused to participate but when General L— arrived (he supported H— ideas) they agreed.
Hitler and the SA stormed a beer hall in Bavaria with the hope of convincing the leaders gathered there to join him on a march to take over Berlin and overthrow the ‘November Criminals’. At first, they refused to participate but when General Ludendorff arrived (he supported Hitler’s ideas) they agreed.
Establishment of the nazi party
H— instead led a march of P— members into the c—. The p— blocked their way, shots were fired and — police officers and 1— Nazis were killed. H— escaped but was a—
Hitler instead led a march of Party members into the city. The police blocked their way, shots were fired and 4 police officers and 16 Nazis were killed. Hitler escaped but was arrested
Establishment of the nazi party
H— was put on trial for treason but a sympathetic j— only gave him a sentence of — years with parole after — months
Hitler was put on trial for treason but a sympathetic judge only gave him a sentence of 5 years with parole after 9 months
Establishment of the nazi party
In p—, in relative comfort, H— wrote his political manifesto M— K— (My Struggle) which added to the N— Party’s popularity
In prison, in relative comfort, Hitler wrote his political manifesto Mein Kampf (My Struggle) which added to the Nazi Party’s popularity
Establishment of the nazi party
After — months H— was released and reorganised the N— Party with an emphasis on winning p— by l— means – to win e—
After 9 months Hitler was released and reorganised the Nazi Party with an emphasis on winning power by legal means – to win elections!
Establishment of the nazi party
The P— was re-founded in 1— with H— as undisputed l— [in the German election of M— 1—, the Party polled — million votes and gained 3— seats in the R—. S— violence and intimidation continued
The Party was re-founded in 1925 with Hitler as undisputed leader [in the German election of May 1924, the Party polled 2 million votes and gained 32 seats in the Reichstag. SA violence and intimidation continued
Establishment of the nazi party
In A— 1— the S— (SS) was created and in 1— the H— Youth was started
In April 1925 the Schutzstaffel (SS) was created and in 1926 the Hitler Youth was started
Establishment of the nazi party
The N— Party was given a tighter s—; G— or local leaders in charge of g— were placed throughout G—
The Nazi Party was given a tighter structure; Gauleiters or local leaders in charge of gau were placed throughout Germany
Establishment of the nazi party
P— membership climbed to more than 1— by 1— but it did NOT do well in the May 1— elections and only won 1— seats. It seemed they were viewed as fringe e— with little prospect of s—
Party membership climbed to more than 100 000 by 1928 but it did NOT do well in the May 1928 elections and only won 12 seats. It seemed they were viewed as fringe extremists with little prospect of success
Establishment of the nazi party
BUT, H— and G— developed highly effective approaches to p—. They made use of n—, p— and new media like r—. They focused on simple targets like J—, c— and ‘N— Criminals’ but expanded to include f—, big b— and the u—
BUT, Hitler and Goebbels developed highly effective approaches to propaganda. They made use of newspapers, posters and new media like radio. They focused on simple targets like Jews, communists and ‘November Criminals’ but expanded to include farmers, big business and the unemployed
Establishment of the nazi party
In 1—, H— joined forces with the N— Party l— to oppose the Y— Plan [another plan to revise the TofV r— payments] – he wanted reparations a— completely.
In 1929, Hitler joined forces with the National Party leader to oppose the Young Plan [another plan to revise the TofV reparations payments] – he wanted reparations abandoned completely.
Establishment of the nazi party
This a— with a ‘respectable’ r— wing party increased H— popularity and gave him access to f— backing from big b— because they liked Hitler’s anti-c— stance
This alliance with a ‘respectable’ right wing party increased Hitler’s popularity and gave him access to financial backing from big business because they liked Hitler’s anti-communism stance
The nazi party through the great depression
By the time the G— D— hit G— at the end of 1—, H— was at the head of a mass m— with a national o— and could use the e— hardships and i— in the country
By the time the Great Depression hit Germany at the end of 1929, Hitler was at the head of a mass movement with a national organisation and could use the economic hardships and instability in the country
The nazi party through the great depression
The G— D— hit G— very, very hard which caused a radicalisation of the e— and the G— people were persuaded by both the c— on the l— wing and N— on the r— wing to try to alleviate the e— crisis
The Great Depression hit Germany very, very hard which caused a radicalisation of the electorate and the German people were persuaded by both the communists on the left wing and Nazis on the right wing to try to alleviate the economic crisis
The nazi party through the great depression
At the end of 1—, N— Party membership was 1— and it had a high p—
At the end of 1929, Nazi Party membership was 130 000 and it had a high profile
The nazi party through the great depression
As u— continued to rise: — million in 1— – 3—, — million in 1—, both w— and the m— classes found the N— ideas attractive
As unemployment continued to rise: 5 million in 1930 – 31, 6 million in 1932, both workers and the middle classes found the Nazi’s ideas attractive
The nazi party through the great depression
The Party participated in e— with mixed results; from 2— in the 1928 elections to 1— (1— seats)in the 1— elections. In July elections in 1—, it gained 37% (2— seats) but dropped back to 3— in November 1—
The Party participated in elections with mixed results; from 2.6% in the 1928 elections to 18% (107 seats)in the 1930s elections. In July elections in 1932, it gained 37% (230 seats) but dropped back to 33% in November 1932
The nazi party through the great depression
S— violence continued through this period, which added to the impression that d— was unstable and d—. But H— campaigned hard, giving s— across the country, flying by p— from place to place
SA violence continued through this period, which added to the impression that democracy was unstable and disordered. But Hitler campaigned hard, giving speeches across the country, flying by plane from place to place
Political intrigue
When the M— Gov (SPD, believed in d—) collapsed in March 1— [he wanted to raise t—, the other parties in his c— refused), President H— appointed a Centre Party p— and academic, Dr B— as C—
When the Muller Gov (SPD, believed in democracy) collapsed in March 1930 [he wanted to raise taxes, the other parties in his coalition refused), President Hindenburg appointed a Centre Party politician and academic, Dr Bruning as Chancellor
Political intrigue
B— attempted to address the e— crisis by using p— to reduce i— – severely cut back on g— spending – this worsened the e— problems. B— needed to rule by Presidential D— (Article 4— in the Constitution) as he did not have a majority in the R—.
Bruning attempted to address the economic crisis by using policies to reduce inflation – severely cut back on gov spending – this worsened the economic problems. Bruning needed to rule by Presidential Decree (Article 48 in the Constitution) as he did not have a majority in the Reichstag.
Political intrigue
New e— were called in September 1— – when the R— rejected B— economic policies
New elections were called in September 1930 – when the Reichstag rejected Bruning’s economic policies
Political intrigue
The Sept 1— elections dramatically changed the fortunes of the N— Party – they campaigned hard, H— gave speeches every 2 or 3 d— and focused on how the TofV r— (even under the Y— Plan) were e— destroying G—.
The Sept 1930 elections dramatically changed the fortunes of the Nazi Party – they campaigned hard, Hitler gave speeches every 2 or 3 days and focused on how the TofV reparations (even under the Young Plan) were economically destroying Germany.
Political intrigue
The N— vote meant they went from 12 to 107 s— in the R— – the second l— party. M— and support grew significantly. Several i— who would come to play a prominent role in the Third R— joined the N— Party at this time [Albert S—, Reinhard H—]
The Nazi vote meant they went from 12 to 107 seats in the Reichstag – the second largest party. Membership and support grew significantly. Several individuals who would come to play a prominent role in the Third Reich joined the Nazi Party at this time [Albert Speer, Reinhard Heydrich]
Political intrigue
In the midst of political chaos in 1—, there was a p— election. H— ran reluctantly; he gained 11 m— votes but H— (who had been elected president in 1—) gained 18 m— [H— did not like the republic]
In the midst of political chaos in 1932, there was a presidential election. Hitler ran reluctantly; he gained 11 million votes but Hindenburg (who had been elected president in 1925) gained 18 million [Hindenburg did not like the republic]
Political intrigue
In December 1— B— banned the wearing of p— uniforms in an effort to calm the daily v—. He tried to disband the S— and S— without success. When the e— crisis deepened [a major b— collapsed], B— was forced to resign and H— appointed Franz von P— – a member of the C— Centre Party, not even in the R—
In December 1931 Bruning banned the wearing of political uniforms in an effort to calm the daily violence. He tried to disband the SA and SS without success. When the economic crisis deepened [a major bank collapsed], Bruning was forced to resign and Hindenburg appointed Franz von Papen – a member of the Catholic Centre Party, not even in the Reichstag
Political intrigue
H— was very old by this time – he relied on a— who hated the r— and were c— and n— in their views
Hindenburg was very old by this time – he relied on advisors who hated the republic and were conservative and nationalist in their views
Political intrigue
To gain support, Von P— began to negotiate with the N— – which they agreed to if he overturned the ban on u— – which he did. Von P— believed he could control H—. July 1— elections – N— won 2— seats – l— party.
To gain support, Von Papen began to negotiate with the Nazis – which they agreed to if he overturned the ban on uniforms – which he did. Von Papen believed he could control Hitler. July 1932 elections – Nazis won 230 seats – largest party.
Political intrigue
In 1—, H— was offered the position of Vice-C— but he refused it. In September 1—, H— brought down Von P— gov (by supporting a C— Party no-confidence motion and new e— were called for November 1—
In 1932, Hitler was offered the position of Vice-Chancellor but he refused it. In September 1932, Hitler brought down Von Papen’s gov (by supporting a Communist Party no-confidence motion and new elections were called for November 1932
Political intrigue
H— and the N— campaigned strongly and v— increased. They lost 3— seats but were still the l— party in the R— (with 1— seats) although they were discouraged (the first signs of e— recovery after the G— D— were evident).
Hitler and the Nazis campaigned strongly and violence increased. They lost 34 seats but were still the largest party in the Reichstag (with 196 seats) although they were discouraged (the first signs of economic recovery after the Great Depression were evident).
Political intrigue
In December 1—, Von P— had to resign the C— because H— refused this time to support him. General von S— became the new C— (behind the scenes there was much p— intrigue occurring)
In December 1932, Von Papen had to resign the Chancellorship because Hitler refused this time to support him. General von Schleicher became the new Chancellor (behind the scenes there was much political intrigue occurring)
Political intrigue
Von P— worked behind the scenes to make Hitler C— of a nationalist coalition g— and H— was persuaded that this was the best s— to bring about stability (H— had majority support in the R—
Von Papen worked behind the scenes to make Hitler Chancellor of a nationalist coalition gov and Hindenburg was persuaded that this was the best solution to bring about stability (Hitler had majority support in the Reichstag
Political intrigue
On 30th J— 1—, Adolf H— was appointed C— of G— through a l— path and demanded new e— in 6 w— to consolidate his hold on p—
On 30th January 1933, Adolf Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany through a legal path and demanded new elections in 6 weeks to consolidate his hold on power
The initial consolidation of Nazi power 1933 - 1934
After the appointment of H— as C— in January 1—, the N— were able to consolidate their hold on p— through a combination of measures; (i)passing new l—, (ii) elimination of other political p— (iii)G— – the N— of German society, (iv)t— and v—, (v)p—, (vi)Hitler becoming F—, to unite the G— people behind them and ensure they could not be removed from p—.
After the appointment of Hitler as Chancellor in January 1933, the Nazis were able to consolidate their hold on power through a combination of measures; (i)passing new laws, (ii) elimination of other political parties (iii)Gleichschaltung – the Nazification of German society, (iv)terror and violence, (v)propaganda, (vi)Hitler becoming Fuhrer, to unite the German people behind them and ensure they could not be removed from power.
The initial consolidation of Nazi power 1933 - 1934
By the end of 1—, H— and the N— had been able to transform the highly d— Weimar Republic into an a— regime.
By the end of 1934, Hitler and the Nazis had been able to transform the highly democratic Weimar Republic into an authoritarian regime.
Early 1933 – Nazi hold on power still weak
H— became C— of Germany in Jan 1—, BUT H— was still the head of s— and hostile to H— and there were only — other Nazis in the cabinet of m—
Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in Jan 1933, BUT Hindenburg was still the head of state and hostile to Hitler and there were only 2 other Nazis in the cabinet of ministers
Early 1933 – Nazi hold on power still weak
H— called for new e— in March 1— and he needed to improve the N— vote in these to confirm his hold on p—.
Hitler called for new elections in March 1933 and he needed to improve the Nazi vote in these to confirm his hold on power.
Early 1933 – Nazi hold on power still weak
In Feb 1—, members of the S— started to be sworn in as ‘a— police’ – over 5— were sworn in – this gave them the legal right to a— and i— 1— political opponents. 6— people were m—
In Feb 1933, members of the SA started to be sworn in as ‘auxiliary police’ – over 50 000 were sworn in – this gave them the legal right to arrest and imprison 100 000 political opponents. 600 people were murdered
Early 1933 – Nazi hold on power still weak
At this time, H— spoke publicly on the r— of his ambition to fix Germany’s e—, end u— and repair a—
At this time, Hitler spoke publicly on the radio of his ambition to fix Germany’s economy, end unemployment and repair agriculture
Early 1933 – Nazi hold on power still weak
Privately, he told Army G— and his cabinet m— that German r— was his main priority
Privately, he told Army Generals and his cabinet members that German rearmament was his main priority
The Reichstag Fire – February 1933
On the 27th F— 1—, a lone Dutch c— M— van der L—, set fire to the G— parliament building, the R—.
On the 27th Feb 1933, a lone Dutch communist Marius van der Lubbe, set fire to the German parliament building, the Reichstag.
The Reichstag Fire – February 1933
The N— interpreted this as the start of a major c— uprising and immediately 4— communists were a—. The N— passed an e— decree/law ‘For the P— of P— and S—’ [sometimes called the R— Fire Decree] which gave H— gov extensive p— to impose c— and restrict civil l—
The Nazis interpreted this as the start of a major communist uprising and immediately 4000 communists were arrested. The Nazis passed an emergency decree/law ‘For the Protection of People and State’ [sometimes called the Reichstag Fire Decree] which gave Hitler’s gov extensive powers to impose censorship and restrict civil liberties
The Reichstag Fire – February 1933
The C— Party was effectively b—, the S— Party had their p— suppressed – moves towards one p— rule
The Communist Party was effectively banned, the Socialist Party had their press suppressed – moves towards one party rule
The Reichstag Fire – February 1933
The S— began a reign of t—, arresting even more p— opponents and imprisoning them in makeshift concentration c— (in disused factories and buildings) The first official c— camp (KZ) was D— but others were built in 1—, mostly full of c— (KPD) and s— (SPD)
The SA began a reign of terror, arresting even more political opponents and imprisoning them in makeshift concentration camps (in disused factories and buildings) The first official concentration camp (KZ) was Dachau but others were built in 1933, mostly full of communists (KPD) and socialists (SPD)
The Reichstag Fire – February 1933
On March 5th 1—, the last multi-party e— were held in G—. The Nazis won 2— seats – still short of an absolute m—, so H— had to form another c— with the r—-wing N— Party
On March 5th 1933, the last multi-party elections were held in Germany. The Nazis won 288 seats – still short of an absolute majority, so Hitler had to form another coalition with the right-wing Nationalist Party
The Reichstag Fire – February 1933
On 21st March 1—, the parliament met in P and Pres H— accepted H— as C—
On 21st March 1933, the parliament met in Potsdam and Pres Hindenburg accepted Hitler as Chancellor
The Reichstag Fire – February 1933
The German National f— of b—, r— and g— was b— and replaced by — flags; the N— Party s— flag and the old i— German flag of b—, r— and w—
The German National flag of black, red and gold was banned and replaced by 2 flags; the Nazi Party swastika flag and the old imperial German flag of black, red and white
The Reichstag Fire – February 1933
The Horst W— song was designated to be sung at all p— events alongside the national a— (Wessel had been an S— leader in B— who had been killed by c— in 1— – it was a popular N— song)
The Horst Wessel song was designated to be sung at all public events alongside the national anthem (Wessel had been an SA leader in Berlin who had been killed by communists in 1930 – it was a popular Nazi song)
The Enabling Act
On 23rd M— 1—, H— tabled the E— Act in the R— – it gave the N— gov complete control to enact l— without the need for the R— or the P— approval. The vote required a 2— majority to change the c—. The C— Party were b—, S— and S— men in the chamber caused the C— Party to vote in favour. Only the S— Party (SPD) – 9— members voted against
On 23rd March 1933, Hitler tabled the Enabling Act in the Reichstag – it gave the Nazi gov complete control to enact laws without the need for the Reichstag’s or the President’s approval. The vote required a 2/3rd majority to change the constitution. The Communist Party were banned, SA and SS men in the chamber caused the Catholic Party to vote in favour. Only the Socialist Party (SPD) – 94 members voted against
Start of the anti-Semitic program
On 1st A— 1—, the N— ordered a nationwide b— of all J— shops
On 1st April 1933, the Nazis ordered a nationwide boycott of all Jewish shops
Start of the anti-Semitic program
On 7th A— 1— the ‘Law for the R— of the P— Civil Service’ excluded J— from all g— work
On 7th April 1933 the ‘Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service’ excluded Jews from all government work
Start of the anti-Semitic program
Also, the N— removed other potential o— (those with differing p— views) from all positions in the c— service and j—
Also, the Nazis removed other potential opponents (those with differing political views) from all positions in the civil service and judiciary
Gleichschaltung
At this time the N— began a process known as G— – the N—/co-ordination of all aspects of s—. This included them asserting c— over regional g— and all levels of a—. P— chiefs in most cities, unless they were N—, were replaced. T— Unions were b—
At this time the Nazis began a process known as Gleichschaltung – the Nazification/co-ordination of all aspects of society. This included them asserting control over regional govs and all levels of administration. Police chiefs in most cities, unless they were Nazis, were replaced. Trade Unions were banned
Gleichschaltung
Y— people were pressured to join the Hitler Y— (boys) and all w— organisation were merged into the N— Socialist W— League
Young people were pressured to join the Hitler Youth (boys) and all women’s organisation were merged into the National Socialist Women’s League
One Party state
On 14th J— 1—, the N— passed a l— declaring the ‘N— Socialist G— Workers’ P—’ exists as the ONLY p— Party in G—
On 14th July 1933, the Nazis passed a law declaring the ‘National Socialist German Workers’ Party’ exists as the ONLY political Party in Germany
One Party state
The SPD (S— Party) was officially b—, other parties dissolved themselves with the C— Party being the last to d—. These steps formalised the creation of a o—-party state
The SPD (Socialist Party) was officially banned, other parties dissolved themselves with the Centre Party being the last to disband. These steps formalised the creation of a one-party state
One Party state
A C— signed with the C— church was an agreement that the N— respected C— rights and the c— would keep out of p— activities
A Concordat signed with the Catholic church was an agreement that the Nazis respected Catholic rights and the church would keep out of political activities
The Reich Chamber of Culture
In the second half of 1—, the Reich C— of C— was established under the l of Joseph G; its task was to co-ordinate the a, including m, f, l, p and the m. This would ensure that all c and c sectors of German s were brought into line. The ‘E Law in October 1 prevented any non-A (Jewish) German working in j
In the second half of 1933, the Reich Chamber of Culture was established under the leadership of Joseph Goebbels; its task was to co-ordinate the arts, including music, film, literature, painting and the media. This would ensure that all creative and communication sectors of German society were brought into line. The ‘Editors Law in October 1933 prevented any non-Aryan (Jewish) German working in journalism
The Reich Chamber of Culture
By the end of 1— H— announced Germany’s withdrawal from the D— Conference and the L— of N— – these steps were p— and signified his future intentions.
By the end of 1933 Hitler announced Germany’s withdrawal from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations – these steps were popular and signified his future intentions.
November 1933 elections
As the N— Party was the only p— party in G—, its candidates won all 6— seats in the R—!
As the Nazi Party was the only political party in Germany, its candidates won all 661 seats in the Reichstag!
Relations with the Army: The Night of the Long Knives
In early 1—, H— had partly consolidated his hold on p— but was still vulnerable – H— was still P— and he held enormous s— and held an independent position of a—
In early 1934, Hitler had partly consolidated his hold on power but was still vulnerable – Hindenburg was still President and he held enormous stature and held an independent position of authority
Relations with the Army: The Night of the Long Knives
The German A— was the one institution with the p— to remove H—. There were tensions between the A— and the S— – the l— of the SA, Ernst R—, had ambitions for the S— to replace the German A— as the nation’s d— force. The Minister of W—, B— had introduced the s— on military uniforms to show the army’s closeness to the N—
The German Army was the one institution with the power to remove Hitler. There were tensions between the Army and the SA – the leader of the SA, Ernst Rohm, had ambitions for the SA to replace the German Army as the nation’s defence force. The Minister of War, Blomberg had introduced the swastika on military uniforms to show the army’s closeness to the Nazis
Relations with the Army: The Night of the Long Knives
H— had no intention of allowing the S— to replace the A— – this would have upset the c— followers of the N— and some sections of the S— were still quite r— in their ideas. R— political rivals in the N— Party – H— and G— manufactured evidence that R— was planning a c— against H—. It was essential that H— secured the support of the A—
Hitler had no intention of allowing the SA to replace the Army – this would have upset the conservative followers of the Nazis and some sections of the SA were still quite revolutionary in their ideas. Rohm’s political rivals in the Nazi Party – Himmler and Goering manufactured evidence that Rohm was planning a coup against Hitler. It was essential that Hitler secured the support of the Army
Relations with the Army: The Night of the Long Knives
On 30th J— 1—, H— acted decisively; the SA l—, including R— were a— in what became known as the N— of the L— K—
On 30th June 1934, Hitler acted decisively; the SA leadership, including Rohm were arrested in what became known as the Night of the Long Knives
Terror and violence
H— elite S— and G— (Secret Sate Police) murdered R— and 5— other SA l— – opportunity was taken to settle old scores with other political o— – 1— were accused of t— and m—. In the days after the ‘ Law on S— Self-D— M—’ legalised all the m— committed
Himmler’s elite SS and Gestapo (Secret Sate Police) murdered Rohm and 50 other SA leaders – opportunity was taken to settle old scores with other political opponents – 150 were accused of treason and murdered. In the days after the ‘ Law on State Self-Defence Measures’ legalised all the murders committed
Terror and violence
The N— of the L— K— completely undermined the S— as a political force and its numbers drastically r— in the next few y—. It served as a warning to anyone with thoughts of defying H— leadership
The Night of the Long Knives completely undermined the SA as a political force and its numbers drastically reduced in the next few years. It served as a warning to anyone with thoughts of defying Hitler’s leadership
Death of Hindenburg 1934
On 2nd A— 1— H— died. H— immediately merged the positions of C— and P— into one and gave himself the title F— of G—. A referendum was held asking the G— people to approve this. 8—% of voters supported H— as having constitutionally unlimited p—; head of s—, head of g—, leader of the Party and supreme c— of the a— forces
On 2nd August 1934 Hindenburg died. Hitler immediately merged the positions of Chancellor and President into one and gave himself the title Fuhrer of Germany. A referendum was held asking the German people to approve this. 89.9% of voters supported Hitler as having constitutionally unlimited powers; head of state, head of government, leader of the Party and supreme commander of the armed forces
Death of Hindenburg 1934
On 3rd A— 1—, all s— and g— officials were made to swear an oath of personal l— to H—.
On 3rd August 1934, all soldiers and government officials were made to swear an oath of personal loyalty to Hitler.
The nature of nazi ideology
When it was founded in 1—, the N— Party produced a 2—-point program that contained a mix of both n— (r— wing) and s— (l— wing) elements. The name National S— highlights this duality but the s— element related more to ‘s—’ than M— ideas.
When it was founded in 1920, the Nazi Party produced a 25-point program that contained a mix of both nationalist (right wing) and socialist (left wing) elements. The name National Socialists highlights this duality but the socialist element related more to ‘society’ than Marx’s ideas.
The nature of nazi ideology
While some party m— took the s— demands seriously, they were never a priority for H—. In his book M— K— and in his speeches he always had a narrow, n— focus – H— ideas came to dominate the development of N— ideology and appeared in n— and other b—
While some party members took the socialist demands seriously, they were never a priority for Hitler. In his book Mein Kampf and in his speeches he always had a narrow, nationalist focus – Hitler’s ideas came to dominate the development of Nazi ideology and appeared in newspapers and other books
The nature of nazi ideology
M— K— expresses very clearly the central preoccupation of N—: r—
Mein Kampf expresses very clearly the central preoccupation of Nazism: race
RACE
The central tenet (b—) of N— was r— – really all other aspects of N— ideology stem from it
The central tenet (belief) of Nazism was race – really all other aspects of Nazi ideology stem from it
RACE
R— defined the n— and therefore the nation and g— had to protect and serve the r—. N— existed to serve and protect the G— race, which in their view was the purest embodiment of the A— race
Race defined the nation and therefore the nation and government had to protect and serve the race. Nazism existed to serve and protect the German race, which in their view was the purest embodiment of the Aryan race
RACE
The A— (and so the G—) were understood to be the creators of all c— and c—. But the German race was weakened by interbreeding with o—, by u—, and d—.
The Aryans (and so the Germans) were understood to be the creators of all civilisation and culture. But the German race was weakened by interbreeding with others, by urbanisation, and degeneration.
A new society
The mission of the N— Party was to avert this c— and to do this they had to establish V— or P— Community
The mission of the Nazi Party was to avert this crisis and to do this they had to establish Volksgemeinschaft or People’s Community
A new society
This national community of G— excluded all other r—, especially J—, to create a new s—. Anti-S— focused on J— as the enemy and a threat to the G— race
This national community of Germans excluded all other races, especially Jews, to create a new society. Anti-Semitism focused on Jews as the enemy and a threat to the German race
A new societyA new society
The N— believed the J— were parasitic, d— and destructive, incapable of creating c—
The Nazis believed the Jews were parasitic, dangerous and destructive, incapable of creating culture
A new society
The G— racial s— entitled them to living space – l— which would be taken at the expense of i— races
The Germans’ racial superiority entitled them to living space – lebensraum which would be taken at the expense of inferior races
A new society
J— were never G—, even if they had been b— and r— in Germany
Jews were never German, even if they had been born and raised in Germany
A new society
The N— also viewed S— and A— people and persons of c— as i— and without c— – they were described as agents of the destructive J—
The Nazis also viewed Slavic and Asian people and persons of colour as inferior and without culture – they were described as agents of the destructive Jew
The Fuhrer prinzip
N— ideology insisted on a strong l— with complete p—: a d— which they called the F— or l— principle
Nazis ideology insisted on a strong leader with complete power: a dictatorship which they called the Fuhrerprinzip or leadership principle
The Fuhrer prinzip
It called for the total l— of all N— Party members to H— and designated that his l— and decisions were free from all l— and moral r—
It called for the total loyalty of all Nazi Party members to Hitler and designated that his leadership and decisions were free from all legal and moral restrictions
The Fuhrer prinzip
Faith in H— was shared by H— himself, most N— Party members and eventually by l— sections of the G— population. H— had the most pervasive p— cult of all the d— of the time period.
Faith in Hitler was shared by Hitler himself, most Nazi Party members and eventually by large sections of the German population. Hitler had the most pervasive personality cult of all the dictators of the time period.
nationalism
When applied to G— in the 1—, this aspect of N— ideology incorporated overthrowing of the T— of V—, r— Germany and uniting all e— Germans into the V— – even from other c—, where G— people had been placed as a result of the post W— peace treaties
When applied to Germany in the 1930s, this aspect of Nazi ideology incorporated overthrowing of the Treaty of Versailles, remilitarising Germany and uniting all ethnic Germans into the Volksgemeinschaft – even from other countries, where German people had been placed as a result of the post WWI peace treaties
nationalism
N— also wanted to restore the German e— and achieve e— self-sufficiency (a—). This would also provide e— and s— for the German p—
Nazism also wanted to restore the German economy and achieve economic self-sufficiency (autarky). This would also provide employment and security for the German people
Anti- communist/marxist
C— and M— were seen as opposite to the interests of N— ideology
Communism and Marxism were seen as opposite to the interests of Nazi ideology
Anti- communist/marxist
M— was rejected because it placed emphasis on an i— community of c—, rather than a nation of r—
Marxism was rejected because it placed emphasis on an international community of class, rather than a nation of race
Anti- communist/marxist
Liberal d— and free market c— were rejected because they placed emphasis on the rights of the i—; e—, access to the l— and p—. This also helps to explain N— rejection of the W— Republic.
Liberal democracy and free market capitalism were rejected because they placed emphasis on the rights of the individual; equality, access to the law and property. This also helps to explain Nazism’s rejection of the Weimar Republic.
Aggressive expansionism
N— ideology believed that G— needed to aggressively expand its t— to survive. This e— should/would be directed towards the e—; P— and the U—
Nazi ideology believed that Germany needed to aggressively expand its territory to survive. This expansion should/would be directed towards the east; Poland and the USSR
Aggressive expansionism
The N— termed this as l— – living space, to which G— was entitled because of the s— of the G— people.
The Nazis termed this as lebensraum – living space, to which Germany was entitled because of the superiority of the German people.
Aggressive expansionism
The N— would ensure that the G— people would be m— and ready to embark upon an aggressive w— of c—.
The Nazis would ensure that the German people would be militarised and ready to embark upon an aggressive war of conquest.
